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Hasidic Jews in Brooklyn – Chosen People

Posted By on September 15, 2015

Chabad-Lubavitch

Perhaps no Hasidic group is better known than Chabad-Lubavitch (or simply Chabad). Their movement spans 70 countries across the globe and has over 200,000 adherents. Founded in the late 18th century and formerly based in Lyubavichi, Russia, this group is currently headquartered in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York.

So what is unique about Chabad? Let us start with the name itself. Chabad is actually an acronym for the Hebrew words Chochmah (wisdom), Binah (understanding), and Daat (knowledge). These three words represent the heart of Chabads religious philosophy, as they seek to gain a higher understanding of God by combining Jewish mysticism with strict adherence to the Torah and Talmud (rabbinical commentary). Members of the Chabad community believe that they are spiritually healing the world by doing mitzvot (good deeds).

Another facet that makes this group unique is the perception that some Chabad devotees have of their late spiritual leader, Menachem Mendel Schneerson. He was deeply revered and his followers would wait for hours just for a moment with him, which is normal in Hasidism. However, towards the end of Schneersons life, a large group within Chabad strongly declared that he was actually the Messiaha radical departure from traditional Hasidism!

After he passed away, his adherents split between those who believed he was the Messiah and those who did not. Even today, there is a strong Messianic expectation among many in the Chabad movement, and some even expect that Rabbi Schneerson will return from the grave.

Interestingly, to back up this idea, Chabad turns to Isaiah 53, which speaks of the Messiah dying to atone for the sins of the people, yet coming back to life (Is. 53:10). Their willingness to understand Isaiah 53 as referring to an individual Messiah opens the door to speak about how Jesus is the fulfillment of that prophecy. Indeed, Jesus already rose from the dead two thousand years ago, while Schneerson remains in his grave to this day. Over the last several years, many of our staff members have shared Isaiah 53 with Chabad Jewish people, and have had some very fruitful discussions.

Satmar

The next-largest Hasidic group in Brooklyn is the community of Satmar Jews. Originally from Satu-Mare, Romania, this group is currently headquartered in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn. It is estimated that there are 130,000 adherents to the Satmar Jewish tradition worldwide.

The Satmar Jews have a similar religious fervor to Chabad and other Hasidic groups, yet there are some key beliefs that distinguish them from the others. One of these is that they are very opposed to the current State of Israel. In fact, they go so far as to say that the nation should not even exist and should be given back to the Palestinians.

Why would this Orthodox Jewish group be opposed to the State of Israel? The Satmar oppose the modern State of Israel because it is a secular state and not one endorsed or established by God. They believe that only the Messiah can restore the nation to the Jewish people, and that in this nation all Jews will practice Torah and follow the Lord. Some even believe that the Holocaust took place because the Jewish Zionists were trying to reclaim the Jewish land for themselves without the intervention of the Messiah. Due to this strong Messianic belief, the Satmar have staged multiple protests and have vocalized strong opposition to the Israeli government. They claim that their opposition is due to a love for the Land and a desire to see conflicts and secularism end there. Ironically, many Satmar still continue to visit Israel, and some even live there.

As we strive to reach those in the Satmar community with the Good News, the discussion on Israel and the Messiah becomes an important entry point. As believers, we know that Jesus the Messiah will return to cleanse Israel of her sin and restore the kingdom (Zechariah 12:10). He will rule in righteousness and there will be perfect peace. Like the Satmar, we too long for this day, and can use our shared enthusiasm for the coming Messiah to open a door to share about Jesus.

Thus, even though we support the current State of Israel, we also believe that only the Messiah Jesus will be able to establish a nation full of peace and righteousness, and to that end we pray. We also pray that the Lord will continue to open doors for us among the Satmar Jews, as our staff members continue to share the Good News with them. With great thanks to God, we can report that there are indeed some believers in Jesus among the Satmar community, although most of them continue to live in the community as underground believers.

Our Hope for the Hasidic Jews of Brooklyn

Our founder, Rabbi Leopold Cohn, began our ministry in Brooklyn, not far from where our new Brooklyn Messianic Center is located. Through his ministry, he made sure to reach the Hasidic groups in Brooklyn. We are grateful that the Lord is giving us the opportunity to continue this rich tradition and have an even stronger ministry presence in the heart of Orthodox Jewish Brooklyn.

Imagine with us that one day we could fill the sanctuary of the new Brooklyn Messianic Center with new and growing believers in Yeshua from the Hasidic community! We believe that our Lord is mighty and can do all things, and we know that He has sovereign plans for our presence in that neighborhood.

We truly cherish your prayers and support as we move forward to complete the renovation of our Brooklyn Messianic Center. The sooner we finish, the sooner we can use the facility for ministry to reach even the unreachable of the Hasidic Jewish community.

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Hasidic Jews in Brooklyn - Chosen People

bienvenue Sur Le Site Du B’nai B’rith Europe

Posted By on September 14, 2015

Vendredi, 10 Juillet 2015

Confrence prsente par le Professeur Ch. Loubet, historien des mentalits et des arts, invit par Yad Vashem le 16 juin, 15H00, au CUM de Nice.

Rsum par Christian Loubet et Gilberte Jacaret Docteur s Lettres, Loge Moshe Dayan du Bnai Brith France, Nice.

Il reste trs peu de tmoignages laisss par des artistes juifs dans les annes 40. Certains ont pu cacher et sauver leurs uvres avant dtre dports (mais elles ne disent rien sur les camps). Dautres ont survcu et exprim lhorreur vcue. Plus tard,s artistes moins directement concerns, ont tenu exprimer leur motion.Ces images compltent les films darchives, prcieux documents contre le rvisionnisme.

CHARLOTTE SALOMON

Rfugie avec ses grands-parents chez une amie, Villefranche en 1939 puis Nice en 1940, elle rencontre puis pouse A. Nagler. Ils vivent lErmitage Villefranche. Enceinte de cinq mois, elle est arrte en septembre 1943 et est excute son arrive Auschwitz.

Elle avait confi son uvre un ami, le docteur Moridis. Son pre Paul, vad et cach en Hollande survivra avec sa seconde femme. Aprs sa tante, sa mre stait suicide en 1926-, sa grand- mre plus tard en 1940.

Felix Nussbaum Autoportrait dans le camp (dtail), 1940, New York, Neue Galerie

FELIX NUSSBAUM

Ne laissez pas mourir mes uvres

N en 1904 Osnabrck, Felix Nussbaum tudie les arts dcoratifs Hambourg, puis les Beaux-Arts Berlin; laurat de lAcadmie allemande Rome, il est pensionnaire la Villa Massimo en 1932. Son atelier brle avec presque tous ses 150 tableaux. Il est alors boursier Rome. On sent, dans ses tableaux, une ironique distanciation et une ironique distanciation et une drive fantastique.

Comme lcrit le professeur Christian Loubet:Lexpressionnisme de Nussbaum est influenc par le cubisme et la metafisica de De Chirico. Proche de la nouvelle objectivit dans les annes 20/30 ( Dix, Grosz, Beckman) il peint des figures nigmatiques dans des formes synthtiques et des couleurs sourdes (Mascarade). Le peintre est clown et pote mais aussi amant et bourgeois, mlancolique et incompris. Les autoportraits reprsentent la moiti de la production.

Lartiste de la fin du XIXme sicle se voyait dj comme un saltimbanque marginal. Nussbaum, hritier dune famille bourgeoise, se voit comme un dclass. Un homme sans qualit, mais un artiste tmoin.

Lors de son sjour romain, les mannequins sans visage voluent dans un monde dnigmes la de Chirico (Solitude). Mais cest la proscription antismite qui linspire bientt (Souvenir de Nordeyney et Place folle). La brocante acadmique est vaine, il faut aller au-del des traditions quitte bousculer les dogmes (Peintre dans latelier).

Nussbaum soriente vers une peinture idologique ds 1930. Larrive dHitler au pouvoir le pousse sur le chemin dun exil en Italie, en Suisse et en France. Il se fixe Ostende en 1935, en dsaccord avec ses parents.Enfants devant lEglise dnonce le conformisme, la lchet et le cynisme des pres. Son ironie caustique alors ne respecte rien (Enterrement). En 1937, il vit Bruxelles avec Felka Platek une artiste juive polonaise. Il dmystifie lart antique jug artificiel. Il est alors clectique: une femme picassienne pleure des perles. Peintre et Modle simbriquent en courbes. Arrt aprs la dfaite franaise, en tant que ressortissant du Reich, il est intern au camp de Saint-Cyprien dans le sud de la France. Evad, il retourne Bruxelles o il demeure cach avec son pouse Felka. Emule dEnsor et de Delvaux dans ses autoportraits et ses paraboles de 39 43, il place le spectateur dans une position de malaise lorsquil exhibe en le fixant, son passeport et son toile jaune. Il projette son Couple nu en 42 comme pour offrir ces corps en rsistance. Lultime Portrait la pipe est une provocation narquoise (les flacons=humeur-mort, nostalgie, souffrance). Cest lincarnation dune volont. La peinture de guerre montre des rfugis juifs aux corps meurtris.

Les derniers tableaux allgoriques modernisent de la symbolique macabre. Les damns sont aux portes de lenfer. Charniers et fossoyeurs les attendent. Nussbaum termine Le triomphe de la mort le 18 avril 1944.

Le couple est finalement arrt le 21 juin. Ils sont dports Auschwitz, le 31 juillet 1944 par le dernier convoi de Malines et assassins. Il avait pu mettre labri ses toiles chez deux amis.

Ce peintre fut redcouvert partir de 1971 grce au travail de ses hritiers en Isral. Le lot des uvres de Bruxelles avait t mis labri chez les Dr. Grosfile et Lefbre. La restauration savra difficile. 214 autres uvres furent dcouvertes en Belgique ou en Allemagne entre 1975 et 1982. Une salle lui fut consacre au Muse dOsnabrck et finalement un btiment fut ralis en 1995 par Liebeskind. En trois parties, ce lieu voque lodysse de lexil. La maison (couverte de bois) est oriente vers la synagogue dtruite le 9 novembre 1933. Le couloir en bton est orient vers la villa qui fut le sige du parti nazi. Le corps central est une mtaphore de lexil. Les deux btiments sont relis par un pont en zinc (chemin de la mort).

Proche de la nouvelle objectivit (Dix, Grosz), on sent dans ses tableaux de la froideur et une drive fantastique.

Une salle lui fut consacre au Muse dOsnabrck et finalement un btiment fut ralis en 1995 par Liebeskind. En trois parties, ce lieu voque lodysse de lexil. La maison (couverte de bois) est oriente vers la synagogue dtruite le 9 novembre 1933. Le couloir FN en bton est orient vers la villa qui fut le sige du parti nazi. Le corps central est une mtaphore de lexil. Les deux btiments sont relis par un pont en zinc (chemin de la mort).

Le Muse d'Art et d'Histoire Juifs a prsent, du 22 septembre 2010 au 23janvier2011, la premire rtrospective importante de son uvre organise en France.

ITZCHAK BELFER

N en Pologne en 1923, Itzchak Belfer a grandi dans l'orphelinat de Janusz Korczak Varsovie, en Pologne. Janusz Korczak tait un mdecin-pdiatre et crivain polonais qui a choisi dlibrment d'tre dport au camp de Treblinka avec les enfants juifs du ghetto de Varsovie dont il s'occupait dans son orphelinat.

Peu de temps aprs la prise de Varsovie par les Allemands au dbut de la Seconde Guerre mondiale et suite la formation du ghetto de Varsovie, Itzchak Belfer parvient s'chapper vers la Russie travers les forts de Pologne. la fin de la guerre, Itzchak Belfer retourne Varsovie et se retrouve directement confront la ralit de l'radication de la communaut juive polonaise. Depuis, le pass vit toujours en Itzchak Belfer puisqu'il n'a jamais vraiment quitt l'orphelinat de Yanusz Korczak, ancr jamais dans ses penses et son esprit. Au plus profond de son me, il reste le petit Itzchakele de Varsovie.

A prsent g de 90 ans, Itzchak Belfer est devenu un artiste isralien reconnu. Durant toute sa vie d'artiste, Itzchak Belfer chercha commmorer le travail de Janusz Korczak et l'Holocauste du peuple juif. Ds lors, Janusz Korczak, le mdecin et ducateur polonais, vit toujours au travers des dessins et des peintures d'Itzchak Belfer dont l'me et l'esprit est habit par l'orphelinat de Korczak Yanusz.

Dans ce reportage, Itzchak Belfer partage ses souvenirs de l'orphelinat. Il rvle l'attitude de Janusz Korczak envers les enfants qu'il traitait tous comme des tres humains dots de la mme dignit et considration que les adultes. Selon lui, un enfant devait jouir des mmes droits qu'un adulte. Il dcrit avec motion le travail de Janusz Korczak et de son assistante, Stepha Wilczyska, au sein de l'orphelinat ainsi que leur amour et dvouement total envers les enfants qu'ils ont tent de sauver, ce qui entrana leur fin tragique. Le Pr Korczack

DAVID OLERE

Il est n en 1902 Varsovie. Il a travaill dans le cinma Berlin puis Paris. Naturalis, il fonde une famille. Ds la dclaration de guerre, en 1939, il est mobilis. Lors de la rafle de 1943, il est intern Drancy puis envoy Auschwitz par le 49me convoi o, sur les mille, six seulement survivront. Il est alors utilis comme interprte car il parle six langues, comme peintre des tortionnaires et aussi comme fossoyeur dans les Zonder-kommandos.

Il sera le seul rescap peintre qui a TOUT VU. Entre le 19 janvier et le 6 mai 1945, il traverse plusieurs camps puis sera libr par les Amricains.

Son uvre est unique. Destine au grand public, elle propose une illustration manichenne du type bande dessine , hyper-raliste avec une attention symbolique trop appuye. Aprs sa mort, en 1985, sa famille a du mal faire passer ses images terribles. Ce sont alors les Klarsfeld qui vont s'y employer. On peut voir une vingtaine de tableaux au muse de la Shoah New York et quelques uns Yad Vashem.

David Olre a reprsent l'un de ces Bunkers.

Il aurait donc pu tre affect au Bunker 1 ou au Bunker 2 peu aprs son arrive

Ce btiment, comme chacun des crmatoires, tait une usine de mort dont il comprenait tous les lments : salle de dshabillage et salle de gazage en sous-sol, salle des fours au niveau du sol, et partir de mai 44 logement des Sonderkommandos l'tage (auparavant, les gardes SS ramenaient les membres des Sonderkommandos au Block 13 du BIId aprs chaque priode de travail. Il s'agissait d'un Block ferm, isol et surveill). Puis...

"Gazage", la peinture de David Olre ralise en 1960. Elle mesure 1m30 x 1m60.

Ce dessin, d'une extrme violence, ne peut, pour autant, pas tre lud. Il a t ralis en 1945. Il nous fait pntrer dans une pice qui est la "salle de travail" du service de dissection. On constate que ces femmes taient en pleine sant. Elles n'taient videmment pas des prisonnires du camp. Elles n'ont pas t gazes non plus. Les SS les tuaient par balles. Et puis l'vacuation est annonce dans une grande pagaille. Les survivants de cette vacuation du camp sont ceux qui portent tmoignage depuis leur libration. Parmi eux, bien entendu, David Olre.

ADOLF FRANKL

N en 1903, ce peintre est violemment projectif, parfois ruptif, voire hyper-expressionniste. Le 29 septembre 1944, il est amen avec sa famille et tous les juifs de Bratislava par la Gestapo et la milice slovaque jusqu' la gare. Il sera l'un des rares survivants sur 2000 au trajet et au typhus libr par l'arme rouge.

Puis la vie continuera Vienne o il a une exposition permanente : Art contre oubli , New York et en Allemagne. Il meurt en 1983.

Eichmann 1957 Macabre composition arcimboldesque

CHRISTIAN BOLTANSKI :

N en 1944 d'un pre juif d'origine russe et d'une mre corse chrtienne, il est rest marqu par le souvenir de la Shoah. Dans ses installations, employant divers matriaux (photographies anciennes, objets trouvs, carton ondul, pte modeler, luminaires, bougies), il suscite l'motion suggrant des prsences virtuelles qui mettent en vidence la disparition. Les thmes sont la mmoire, l'inconscient, l'enfance et la mort. On devine souvent ainsi, en perspective, les souffrances endures par les juifs dans des installations qui expriment, sans mot, l'horreur de la guerre et de la Shoah.

ANSELM KIEFER

Allemand n en 1945 fut fascin par le judasme. La belle Sulamite, chante par Salomon gt au fond d'un sombre mausole.

ZORAN MUSIC

n le 12 fvrier 1909 Bukovica, hameau de Gorica (Gorizia), ville aujourd'hui traverse par la frontire italo-slovne et qui fait alors partie de l'empire austro-hongrois, est un peintre et graveur Slovne de la nouvelle cole de Paris. Il est mort le 25 mai 2005 Venise.

Arrt en octobre 1944 par la Gestapo, Music (non juif) est emprisonn Trieste pendant 26 jours. On lui laisse le choix : collaborer comme officier dans le corps tranger de la Waffen SS ou partir pour le camp de concentration de DACHAU. Il choisit la seconde solution. Il parvient raliser en cachette quelque 200 dessins (encre dilue, crayon) de ses compagnons mourants ou morts. Son uvre ultrieure sera marque par les atrocits qu'il voit.

MARC CHAGALL ralise, dans les annes 1940, des compositions bibliques. On y dtecte l'influence de l'enseignement religieux de son enfance. La Passion devient celle du peuple juif.

La crucifixion blanche de Chagall. Le Christ juif avec ses phylactres et son talith qui cache sa nudit incarne les victimes des nazis. En bas du tableau, les juifs religieux, la mre avec son bb et le Juif errant fuient. (cf : Quand le juif errant rencontre Apollinaire et Herzl puis traverse le XXme sicle Edition Mlibe, de Gilberte JACARET)

Ouverture du muse Mendjisky ddi aux "Ecoles de Paris"

Un nouveau muse priv a ouvert ses portes le 11 avril 2014 Paris dans un btiment du 15e arrondissement. Centr sur le peintre Maurice Mendjizky (1890-1951), il entend galement tirer de l'oubli certains artistes des deux "Ecoles de Paris".

Les artistes de "la premire Ecole de Paris" sont principalement des trangers juifs souvent venus d'Europe centrale, arrivs au dbut du XXe sicle dans la capitale, et fixs autour du quartier Montparnasse. Amedeo Modigliani, Marc Chagall, Cham Soutine, Mose Kisling sont les plus connus.

Un peintre li l'avant-garde au dbut du 20e sicle L'histoire du peintre Maurice Mendjizky pouse les bouleversements de l'Europe de la premire moiti du XXe sicle. N en Pologne, dans une famille juive trs modeste, il arrive en 1906 Paris l'ge de 16 ans. Il tudie aux Beaux-Arts et intgre "la Ruche", o vivent des artistes d'avant-garde, notamment Soutine.

Install Vence en 1921, il ralise vers 1947 des sries de dessins sur le Ghetto de Varsovie o sont morts son pre, sa mre et ses deux surs.

En octobre 40, sur dnonciation, la Gestapo arrte sa femme Rose Paris. Maurice se rfugie Nice chez sa belle-sur. Il fonde la 8me Compagnie des Francs-Tireurs et Partisans (FTP). Huit jours avant la libration, Claude, son fils an, 20 ans, est arrt au cours d'un parachutage Utelle. Il est fusill le 22 juillet l'Ariane. Maurice lui ddie son premier recueil de 31 dessins publi avec un pome d'Eluard. Picasso crira : C'est un chef d'uvre, une vritable symphonie du noir et blanc . Il a peut-tre lu le tmoignage de Jan Karski (1944) qui a visit le ghetto, effar par ces ombres dshumanises (Voir in Shoah et le roman de Yannik Haenel : Il n'y avait plus rien d'humain dans ces formes palpitantes ). Le Ghetto de Varsovie (440.000 habitants en juin 41, 3000 au km2, 50.000 lors de la rvolte) se souleva le 19 avril 43, veille de Pessah, puis fut ras.

Le muse Mendjisky a t cr par le fils du peintre Mendjizky (qui a remplac le z du nom polonais de son pre par un s). Ag de 85 ans, Serge Mendjisky est lui-mme peintre et photographe.

Pour son ouverture, le muse a propos jusqu'au 12 juillet 2014 une rtrospective consacre Maurice Mendjizky, avec une centaine de ses peintures (paysages, portraits). Il a prsent aussi une trentaine de dessins raliss par l'artiste sur le ghetto de Varsovie, o ses parents et ses surs ont t extermins.)

SERGE SMULEVIC

d'origine polonaise est n en France en 1921, diplm des Beaux-Arts de Strasbourg. Dnonc et arrt Nice, lors d'une mission pour la Rsistance, il est enferm rue Gioffredo, puis envoy Drancy et Auschwitz. Toute sa famille a disparu dans les camps. Libr Dachau, il tmoigne par ses dessins et ses pomes. Il est mort en 2010.

Dessin de Serge Smulevic, lors du Procs Papon

Dessins de Sala Sala est le nom d'artiste de Myriam Smulevic, fille de Serge.

La marche de la mort

Le survivant

La marche de la mort (2004)

L'arbre de paix

L'intranquille, GRARD GAROUSTE

Dans les annes 1950, Grard Garouste, enfant, a entendu de son pre des propos antismites. Plus tard, il comprend l'implication de son pre dans le processus de la spoliation des Juifs en France. De l, il cherche en savoir davantage, il va aux archives, enqute et crit un livre. Aujourd'hui il veut transmettre. Je suis le fils d'un salopard qui m'aimait. Mon pre tait un marchand de meubles qui rcupra les biens des juifs dports. Mot par mot, il m'a fallu dmonter cette grande duperie que fut mon ducation....

= = = = = = = = = = = = = =

Le ventre est encore fcond, d'o a surgi la bte immonde. Bertolt Brecht.

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bienvenue Sur Le Site Du B'nai B'rith Europe

PressTV-Gaza gas stations running out of fuel

Posted By on September 14, 2015

The Union of Gaza gas station owners has warned about the fuel shortage in the Israeli-blockaded Palestinian territory, saying petroleum supplies in the Gaza Strip are running increasingly low.

Mahmoud al-Shawwa, the unions head, told Palestines Maan news agency on Friday that Gazas fuel shortage is blamed on a lack of gasoline coming into the coastal enclave through the Israeli-controlled Kerem Shalom crossing.

There are gas stations in the Gaza Strip that are out of fuel, as the quantities arriving into Gaza are little and the priority is to the power station, Shawwa said.

Although diesel fuel had entered the coastal sliver recently, it was all sent to Gaza Power Plant to keep the installation running, he added.

Gaza Power Plant has been operating at about half of its capacity of 120 megawatts (MW) over the past few years as a result of fuel shortages due to the Israeli siege.

The plant, which was also damaged during Israels 50-day war in the summer of 2014, has been forced to shut down on several occasions.

Since 2007, the Tel Aviv regime maintains its land, air and sea blockade on more than 1.8 million people living in Gaza, denying them the most basic items like food, medicine and fuel.

This is while the Rafah border crossing, which is Gazans only way of access to the outside world free from Israels control, has been shut by Egypt, further complicating the humanitarian situation in the enclave.

The Cairo government has also launched a heavy-handed crackdown on the underground tunnels, which are used to transfer essential supplies into the impoverished coastal sliver.

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PressTV-Gaza gas stations running out of fuel

Leo Frank Wikipdia

Posted By on September 14, 2015

Un article de Wikipdia, l'encyclopdie libre.

Leo Frank, n le 17 avril 1884 et mort le 17 aot 1915 ( 31ans), tait un juif Amricain. Il fut lynch par la foule Marietta, en Gorgie, en 1915. Ce fait divers amena la cration de l'Anti-Defamation League en raction l'antismitisme que ses fondateurs estimaient rgner alors aux tats-Unis[1].

Leo Frank est n Paris (Texas)[2], fils de Rudolf et Rachel ('Rae') Frank. Sa famille vient d'Allemagne et s'installe d'abord Brooklyn (New York) avant de faire un court sjour de trois ans Cuero au Texas, pisode pendant lequel nat Leo. Le pre de Leo n'est pas particulirement brillant, c'est son oncle Moise qui russit: originaire comme le reste de la famille d'Allemagne, il fait fortune en commerant avec les tats-Unis. Cet oncle fait fortune et aide sa famille. Leo qui est dou l'cole en profite: il bnficie ainsi d'une trs haute ducation, puisqu'aprs tre all au Pratt Institute il va luniversit Cornell, une des plus grandes universits du pays avec Harvard, Princeton ou Yale[3],[4] d'o il sort diplm d'ingnierie mcanique en 1906. Brillant lve, Leo est recrut par la clbre B.F. Sturtevant Company Hyde Park dans la banlieue de Boston (MA). Il n'y reste pas longtemps et revient New York, avant d'tre repris en main par son oncle. Ils sont dj alls en Europe ensemble plusieurs fois (1905, 1906, 1907). Ils y ont visit l'Allemagne et la France, et fait la connaissance des Faber, une famille de fabricants de stylos de Hambourg. C'est l que Leo revient, et y passe neuf mois de dcembre 1907 juillet 1908; il y apprend tout du systme de fabrication. Fort de cette nouvelle exprience, il est recrut par Sigmund (dit "Sig") Montag qui vient de crer la National Pencil Company. Ce dernier a besoin d'un directeur pour sa nouvelle usine d'Atlanta. Moise Frank qui connat Sig Montag (tous deux sont juifs et viennent d'Allemagne) russit faire nommer Leo ce poste.

Leo travaille l'usine de stylos tablie sur Forsyth Street. Il s'installe en aot 1908. Atlanta abrite alors la plus grande communaut juive du Sud; aussi Leo y fait la connaissance de sa future femme, Lucile Loeb-Cohen Selig (29 fvrier 1888 23 avril 1957), la fille de la plus illustre famille juive d'Atlanta, qui a fond la premire synagogue de la ville et qui est aussi richissime. Ils se marient le 28 novembre 1910.

Leo grimpe vite les chelons et cumule bientt lui seul les plus importantes fonctions de l'usine: super-intendant, trsorier, comptable, grant des payes, et mme copropritaire des lieux; bientt il devint aussi directeur associ de l'autre usine de stylos de la ville situe sur Bell Street. Il s'attache principalement pousser au maximum la productivit de l'usine. Il installe un systme de poinonnage de cartes qui chronomtre le travail des employs la seconde prs.

Leo a donc une vie parfaite: brillant, jeune, dj riche, mari. Il continue grimper dans la hirarchie sociale puisqu'il est lu chef de la section de l'organisation juive du B'nai B'rith d'Atlanta la fin de l'anne 1912[5]; et peu aprs, au printemps 1913, il apprend que sa femme est enceinte. Tout lui russit. Rien ne laisse prsager ce qui va arriver.

Un vnement va faire basculer la vie de Leo Frank: la dcouverte dans l'usine du corps de Mary Phagan, une employe qui aurait ft ses 14 ans quelques semaines plus tard[6] et qui tait venue chercher sa paye de 12$ due pour ses 12 heures de travail de la semaine[7]. Si au dbut de l'enqute les policiers ne souponnent pas Leo Frank, ils finissent par orienter leurs recherches vers lui.

Le corps a t dcouvert dans la nuit du 26 au 27 avril 3 h du matin par le veilleur de nuit noir de l'usine, Newt Lee, dans les toilettes rserves aux noirs ( cette poque le Sud connat un systme de sgrgation raciale, qui ne sera aboli qu' la fin des annes 1960). Il tlphone la police qui arrive sur les lieux dix minutes plus tard. On trouve sur le corps de la petite deux bouts de papiers sur lesquels, agonisante, elle aurait crit que son violeur et assassin serait noir. Le veilleur de nuit analphabte n'a pas pu lire le mot, et cela en fait le premier suspect, mais le systme de pointage tabli par Leo Frank innocente le veilleur de nuit qui a point en temps et en heure toutes les quinze minutes. Les policiers prviennent alors le patron de l'usine de la dcouverte du corps et le prient de se rendre immdiatement sur les lieux du crime. Leo Frank ne semble pas comprendre tout de suite la situation, car il se montre revche et semble dplaire aux policiers qui lui reprochent sa nonchalance et un soupon de peur dans sa voix. Lorsque Leo Frank se rend sur place, quatre heures aprs la dcouverte du corps, il fait mauvaise impression et apparat le plus troubl de toute l'assistance[8]. N'ayant pas confiance dans la police d'Atlanta, Leo Frank engage alors une entreprise de dtectives privs (Pinkerton Detective Agency) aux frais de la socit. Il apprend que les policiers ont gch la scne de crime, ne relevant pas des empreintes digitales dans du sang sch par exemple. De leur ct les policiers resserrent leurs filets autour de Leo Frank: Leo Frank est le dernier avoir vu la fille vivante, son comportement a t nerveux, et le jour du meurtre Leo Frank a fait deux choses inhabituelles qu'il n'avait jamais fait auparavant: il a demand Newt Lee de venir deux heures en avance au travail (16 heures au lieu de 18h) et, lorsque ce dernier s'est prsent 16h, lui a demand de repartir pour revenir 18h. Enfin il a tlphon Newt Lee vers 19h pour savoir si tout allait bien (L. Frank se justifiera en disant qu'en quittant l'usine 18 h, il a crois un ancien comptable, licenci deux semaines auparavant, qui venait rcuprer des chaussures laisses son ancien bureau et qu'il demanda alors N. Lee d'accompagner ce dernier).

Le lendemain, 28 avril, Leo Frank est convoqu au commissariat pour y tre entendu. Il y est rejoint par son avocat, Luther Rosser, et l'avocat de la compagnie, Herbert Haas. Le 29 avril, Leo Frank est officiellement arrt. Les enquteurs ne laissent rien filtrer aux journalistes. Aussi la presse comme la population est d'abord partage: la communaut juive comme la famille de Frank le dclarent innocent et dans le reste de la population, seules des rumeurs laissent entendre qu'il est coupable.

Le 1er mai, un employ de l'usine est interpell. Il s'agit d'un balayeur noir du nom de Jim Conley. Il est arrt car il a t surpris en train de laver une chemise tache de sang (il s'en dfendra en disant que c'tait de la rouille; quand il est apprhend, il a fini de laver la chemise). Il est entendu et questionn par les enquteurs, et finit par dire que c'est Leo Frank qui l'a recrut pour se dbarrasser du corps et lui a promis 200 dollars. Cela est corrobor par les dclarations de ceux qui ont vu le modeste Jim Conley passer beaucoup de temps dans les bars depuis le meurtre, consommant beaucoup d'alcool. Quand les policiers lui parlent des bouts de papiers trouvs sur le corps, il affirme que c'est Leo Frank qui les lui a dict la veille du meurtre, car aussi surprenant que cela puisse paratre Jim Conley sait lire et crire. Les enquteurs sont surpris et font vrifier son criture (diffrents experts exprimeront des avis contradictoires); de mme ils montrent les papiers la tutrice de Mary Phagan qui affirme ne pas reconnatre l l'criture de la fille.

Tout semble accrditer la thse de Conley. cela viennent s'ajouter des rumeurs qui font du patron de l'usine un maquereau et un pervers sexuel, des vices qui auraient t plus marqus depuis la grossesse de sa femme. Il harclerait notamment les jeunes filles comme Mary Phagan qui y travaillaient: une vingtaine d'entre elles tmoigneront au tribunal avoir t victimes de ses assauts (mais qu'elles ont toutes repousss). Il courait galement une rumeur affirmant qu'taient souvent organises pendant la nuit des parties fines dans l'usine mme. Une maquerelle d'Atlanta en tmoignera au tribunal. Les policiers pensent tenir leur coupable et chafaudent leur hypothse: le jour du 26 avril, peu aprs midi, la petite Mary se rend l'usine pour toucher sa paye que doit lui remettre Leo Frank. C'est l qu'elle aurait refus ses avances, ce que Leo Frank n'aurait pu supporter. Aprs l'avoir viole, il l'aurait trangle et aurait soudoy Jim Conley pour se dbarrasser du corps.

Les charges retenues contre Leo Frank sont extrmement graves puisque les enquteurs arrivent prouver avec le tmoignage de Jim Conley que Leo Frank aurait prmdit ces actes. Selon les enquteurs, Leo Frank aurait tout maniganc pour que soit accus sa place un Noir de la ville, chose probable tant donn la mfiance ambiante envers les Noirs cette poque (en 1906, Atlanta avait connu les pires meutes raciales du pays). Il est important de noter que tous les tmoignages de l'accusation seront rprouvs (aprs un certain temps) et r-approuvs (une fois de retour au poste de police d'Atlanta) par leurs auteurs avant, pendant ou aprs le procs.[rf.ncessaire]

Sur la base de l'hypothse formule par la police, Leo Frank est inculp le 24 mai. Le procs commence le 28 juillet et le 25 aot Leo Frank est reconnu coupable par les jurs. Ils n'ont pas cru la dfense de Frank qui rejetait le crime sur Jim Conley; d'autant que si on pouvait penser que Frank tait accus uniquement parce que juif, riche et nordiste, on avait du mal comprendre le discours raciste des avocats de Frank qui dclaraient Conley noir, alcoolique, menteur, puant, etc. Conley fera plusieurs dclarations contradictoires, mais son attitude nave lui donne les faveurs du public. Les jurs dlibreront 4 heures avant de donner leur verdict. Deux jurs seront remis en cause par la dfense pour avoir tenu des propos antismites envers Leo Frank avant le procs, mais rien ne fut prouv (malgr certains tmoignages). Le verdict devait tre rendu un samedi, mais ce jour tant le jour d'affluence des gens de la campagne Atlanta, le juge repoussa l'nonc du verdict au lundi, de peur des ractions de la foule. Le juge interdit aussi Leo Frank et ses avocats de siger au tribunal au moment de l'nonc du verdict, pareillement pour viter tout lynchage.

Frank fit appel. Durant la procdure, en octobre, l'avocat de Jim Conley dclara que Conley tait le vrai coupable et qu'il s'en tait confi lui, mais cela n'empcha pas l'appel d'tre rejet en novembre 1914 par la cour d'appel de Gorgie. ce moment, la dfense de Leo Frank lui avait dj cot un total de 40000 dollars, une vritable fortune l'poque. Heureusement, Frank bnficiait du soutien de son gnreux oncle et d'un des amis de ce dernier, Louis Marshall(en), le prsident de l'American Jewish Committee.

Frank fit appel alors la Cour suprme, mais l encore l'appel fut rejet par 7 voix contre 2 le 19 avril 1915. Durant toute cette priode la presse rvla de nombreux tmoignages tendant innocenter Leo Frank. Elle publia les lettres crites en prison par Jim Conley une femme de La Nouvelle-Orlans dans lesquelles il aurait avou le crime. Un dtenu surnomm Freeman jura qu'il tait avec Jim Conley dans le sous sol de l'usine le jour du meurtre, ils jouaient aux cartes ensemble pour de l'argent, alors que Conley tait court d'argent il serait mont l'tage, aurait crois Mary Phagan et assassin pour lui prendre sa paye, Freeman affirma l'avoir vu trangler Mary Phagan. Un pasteur noir d'Atlanta affirma avoir entendu deux noirs chuchoter le lendemain du meurtre, l'un d'eux affirmait qu'il avait t importun par un agent d'assurances et qu'il lui affirma: j'ai tu une petite fille aujourd'hui, alors ne m'obligez pas tuer quelqu'un d'autre, etc. mais tous ces tmoignages seront systmatiquement rpudis lors de l'audition des personnes par la police d'Atlanta, si bien qu'aucun lment nouveau ne permettait d'innocenter Frank.

Le 31 mai, ses avocats dposrent une demande pour commuer la peine de mort en prison vie. L'excution tait programme pour le 22 juin 1915. La veille, le 21 juin, le gouverneur de Gorgie, John M. Slaton(en), commua la peine en prison vie, une semaine de la fin de son mandat de gouverneur. Cette dcision qui allait l'encontre d'un jury populaire, qui fut prise la veille de la fin du mandat du gouverneur et la veille de l'excution de la sentence, ne fit qu'attiser un peu plus la haine sur le cas Leo Frank. La foule tait en colre.

John Carson[9], un musicien, joueur de fiddle, composa une chanson, La balade de Mary Phagan, qu'il joua devant le palais du gouverneur pour protester. La presse rvla alors que le gouverneur et l'avocat de Frank avaient une affaire en commun (en fait le cabinet d'avocats qui dfendait Leo Frank depuis le dbut de l'affaire). Slaton et sa femme furent alors menacs de mort; une foule se pressa aux alentours de leur villa 7 kilomtres de la ville, et il fallut une compagnie de la milice pour les protger de toute intrusion, des fils barbels furent appliqus tout autour de la proprit, et les frquents Halte, qui va l?! empchrent le couple de dormir durant une semaine; ayant atteint la fin de son mandat, le gouverneur dcida de quitter ltat; il ne revint en Gorgie que plusieurs annes plus tard.

Pour assurer la scurit de Leo Frank, le gouverneur Slaton, avant de rendre sa dcision publique, avait fait changer de prison Leo Frank: il le fit transfrer de nuit de la prison d'Atlanta celle de Milledgeville (180km plus au sud). Cette mesure le protgea de la foule d'Atlanta, mais pas de ses codtenus, puisque le 17 juillet un codtenu arm d'un couteau de boucher trancha la gorge de Leo sur 21cm de long. Il expliqua vouloir viter lui ainsi qu'aux autres dtenus d'tre lynch par la foule si jamais elle venait chercher Leo Frank. Ce dernier lutta entre la vie et la mort pendant des jours et ses blessures ne cicatrisrent jamais totalement.

Le 16 aot vers 22h une troupe de 8 voitures compose de 25 hommes arms, dont un ancien gouverneur de Gorgie, et d'anciens ou futurs maires, de shrifs, de fermiers, d'avocats, de banquiers, etc., attaqua la prison dtat de Milledgeville o ils enlevrent Leo Frank. Un lectricien se chargea de couper les cbles reliant la prison (un cble tlphonique ne fut pas coup, ce qui permit ltat tout entier d'tre au courant de l'enlvement moins d'une heure aprs); un chauffeur et un mcanicien eurent pour mission d'viter toute panne de vhicule; un bourreau devait pendre le condamn tout simplement; les autres devaient prendre soin d'immobiliser les forces de police de la prison. Une fois Leo Frank captur, ils le conduisirent en voiture par des chemins dtourns (pour viter les barrages de police) sur plus de 200 kilomtres (plus de trois heures de trajet), jusqu' la ville o tait ne la petite Mary, Marietta. C'est l qu'ils le pendirent un arbre, tt le matin du 17 aot, aprs l'avoir dclar coupable et lui avoir demand d'avouer une dernire fois (ce qu'il refusa de faire). Sa dernire volont fut qu'on remit sa femme son alliance, ce qui fut fait. Une foule d'enfants, de femmes et d'hommes arriva alors et l'on prit en souvenir des photos dont on fit des cartes postales qui eurent un grand succs, mais que la presse locale refusa de publier (craignant des reprsailles au niveau national); la ville d'Atlanta prit un arrt interdisant la vente de telles cartes trois jours aprs, mais en 1917, on en vendait encore. Le lynchage tait une pratique courante, mais illgale, le commando avait agi masqu et les noms de ses membres ne furent rvls qu'en l'an 2000, 85 ans aprs les faits, bien que localement tout le monde les ait connus. Une enqute fut mene, mais personne ne fut inculp. Le corps de Leo Frank fut transport le 17 aot Atlanta par entreprise de pompes funbres; le corps fit le voyage jusqu' New York accompagn par la veuve. La dpouille de Leo Frank fut inhume le 20 aot au cimetire du Mont Carmel New York.[rf.ncessaire]

Aprs sa condamnation, l'association juive dont Leo Frank tait le prsident Atlanta, "Les fils de l'Alliance" (ou B'nai B'rith), a dcid de crer l'AntiDefamation League en septembre 1913 pour empcher l'avenir toute calomnie contre l'un de ses membres.

la suite du lynchage d'aot 1915, la moiti de la communaut juive de Gorgie fuit ltat de peur des reprsailles et du boycott inflig leurs commerces. Le jour du lynchage, la communaut juive de Marietta reut l'avertissement qu'elle devait quitter la ville avant minuit; elle s'excuta.

la suite de l'affaire Mary Phagan, en octobre 1915, une partie des membres de l'association "les chevaliers de Mary Phagan" s'associa avec des nostalgiques du Ku Klux Klan (interdit depuis les annes 1870) pour le ressusciter.

La femme de Leo Frank ne se remaria jamais. Elle consacra sa vie clamer linnocence de son dfunt mari et mourut en 1957 New York. Bien qu'une place lui ait t rserve la gauche de la tombe de Lo, elle demanda en 1954 tre incinre afin de pouvoir tre ramene secrtement dans le caveau familial d'Atlanta (des funrailles auraient entran des reprsailles), ce qui fut fait 7 ans aprs sa mort. Ce dernier souhait, reposer entre ses parents Atlanta plutt qu' ct de Frank New York, est considr par les partisans de la culpabilit de Leo Frank comme un aveu de la culpabilit de Frank de la part de sa femme, une rumeur prtendant que Leo aurait avou sa femme avoir commis le crime.

Jim Conley ne purgea en tout qu'un an de prison pour sa complicit dans l'affaire. Il fut interpell plus tard pour cambriolage, ivresse et pari clandestin (il fut condamn 20 ans de prison, mais n'en fit qu'une partie). Il mourut en 1962.

Le 7 mars 1982, Alonzo Mann, qui tait en 1913 un petit garon employ l'usine de crayons, affirma avoir vu Jim Conley seul dplacer le corps de la petite Mary. Menac de mort par Jim Conley s'il disait la vrit, il se tut sur le conseil de sa famille et de ses proches. Alonzo Mann mourut trois ans aprs et avoua avoir fait cette dmarche pour pouvoir mourir la conscience tranquille. Jim Conley tait mort depuis 1962.

la suite de ce rebondissement, l'AntiDefamation League tenta de mener une procdure de rhabilitation envers Leo Frank, mais choua car toutes les pices du dossier avaient t perdues. La Cour dcida donc qu'on ne pouvait ni confirmer ni infirmer le verdict rendu l'poque. Cependant, en 1986, la Cour reconnut sa faute dans le lynchage de Leo Frank, reconnaissant n'avoir pas pu le protger. La communaut juive continue aujourd'hui de proclamer l'innocence de Leo Frank[10], alors que pour la Justice amricaine et la famille de la victime, il reste coupable. L'opinion reste divise. Mme si pour la famille Phagan, Leo Frank est coupable, elle a toujours interdit aux chevaliers de Mary Phagan et au KKK de procder des crmonies sur la tombe de Mary Phagan, et donc de s'associer ces actions.

Le procs de Frank a t l'objet de surenchre spectaculaire de la part des mdias, qui dcrivirent des scnes d'orgies et de viol l'usine de Frank. D'avril aot, durant les quatre premiers mois, prs de 18000 colonnes lui furent consacres[11]. Des trois journaux de la ville (The Atlanta Constitution, The Atlanta Journal, The Atlanta Georgian), celui de Hearst (Le Georgian) en a le plus profit en multipliant par trois son tirage. Hearst fit venir pour gagner cette bataille de la presse son diteur de New York (Keats Speed) spcialement pour l'affaire. La presse ne s'embarrassait pas de dontologie, et ds le premier jour, elle accusa Newt Lee d'avoir commis le crime, et dj la foule demandait qu'on le lynche[12]. Alors que trois jours aprs les faits Newt Lee tait dj remplac par Leo Frank sur la liste des suspects no1, cela n'empchait pas le Georgian de titrer en gros en une: La culpabilit de Lee est prouve!. Le dmagogue nativiste, avocat et diteur gorgien Tom Watson en particulier enflamma l'opinion publique en appelant au lynchage pour en finir avec Leo Frank, en justifiant le principe du lynchage en l'expliquant comme l'application de la justice populaire; il commenta l'affaire partir de dcembre 1914, accusant sens unique le pervers juif. Son mensuel et son hebdomadaire (The Watson Magazine et The Jeffersonian) virent leur tirage quadrupler. La presse gorgienne et atlantenne ne condamnrent pas unanimement Leo Frank; aprs les premiers mois du procs, et aprs la condamnation les journaux remirent en question la dcision du jury. Certains journaux gorgiens n'hsitrent pas condamner son lynchage par ailleurs, ds le jour mme, et elle refusa de diffuser les photos du lynchage; en-dehors d'Atlanta, en Gorgie mme, il y eut tout de mme quelques journaux pour saluer la justice populaire. En dehors de Gorgie la presse tait majoritairement pour Leo Frank. Los Angeles et New York on fustigeait l'attitude archaque des sudistes. Leo Frank croyait fermement dans sa future relaxe; il tait soutenu par la diaspora juive amricaine qui tait regroupe dans l'American Jewish Committee. Ce dernier tait dirig par Louis Marshall, qui, depuis New York (o il dirigeait le New York Times), a tout le long de l'affaire conseill les avocats de Frank et orchestr vritablement le soutien Leo Frank dans la presse grce ses puissantes relations, il l'a galement aid financirement. Toutefois, l'AJC tait soucieuse de ne pas organiser de manifestations trop voyantes ni de campagne de presse trop virulente de peur de jeter de l'huile sur le feu; les adversaires de Leo Frank ne se sont pas gns pour expliquer le soutien Leo Frank de la part de la presse par la corruption et l'argent du lobby juif.

Pour l'ADL et l'AJC, l'affaire Leo Frank montre indniablement l'antismitisme inn de la culture sudiste (blanche, chrtienne, WASP, raciste), pour eux Leo Frank est le seul blanc avoir t condamn mort sur la foi du tmoignage d'un noir. Cela dit, l'antismitisme sudiste reste une question dbattue: de nombreux officiers confdrs taient juifs, les juifs sont arrivs trs tt dans le sud (ds le XVIesicle) et le lynchage de Leo Frank est le seul concernant un juif dans toute l'histoire des tats-Unis que ce soit au Sud ou au Nord, ce fut le premier et le dernier aussi. Plusieurs mois aprs le procs, avant le lynchage, les journaux d'Atlanta firent circuler une ptition appuyant la commutation de la peine dpose auprs du gouverneur; ils reurent des milliers de soutiens de gens du pays. L'historien amricain, d'origine juive, Leonard Dinnersein met l'accent sur la situation sociale explosive d'Atlanta dans les annes 1910 sur fond de misre et de violence extraordinaire (en 1906 Atlanta est le lieu de trs violentes meutes): une population trs pauvre, avec un trs haut taux de criminalit, et une injustice sociale quasi permanente (Mary Phagan est l'exemple du travail d'enfant sous-pay), une misre intellectuelle galement o l'illettrisme mne une manipulation facile des foules.

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Leo Frank Wikipdia

Jordan | history – geography | Britannica.com

Posted By on September 14, 2015

Alternative titles: Al-Mamlakah al-Urdunyah al-Hshimyah; Al-Urdun; Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan

Jordan,Arab country of Southwest Asia, in the rocky desert of the northern Arabian Peninsula.

Petra: Al-Dayr Arraial/FotoliaJordan is a young state that occupies an ancient land, one that bears the traces of many civilizations. Separated from ancient Palestine by the Jordan River, the region played a prominent role in biblical history. The ancient biblical kingdoms of Moab, Gilead, and Edom lie within its borders, as does the famed red stone city of Petra, the capital of the Nabatean kingdom and of the Roman province of Arabia Petraea. British traveler Gertrude Bell said of Petra, It is like a fairy tale city, all pink and wonderful. Part of the Ottoman Empire until 1918 and later a mandate of the United Kingdom, Jordan has been an independent kingdom since 1946. It is among the most politically liberal countries of the Arab world, and, although it shares in the troubles affecting the region, its rulers have expressed a commitment to maintaining peace and stability.

The capital and largest city in the country is Ammannamed for the Ammonites, who made the city their capital in the 13th century bce. Amman was later a great city of Middle Eastern antiquity, Philadelphia, of the Roman Decapolis, and now serves as one of the regions principal commercial and transportation centres as well as one of the Arab worlds major cultural capitals.

Slightly smaller in area than the country of Portugal, Jordan is bounded to the north by Syria, to the east by Iraq, to the southeast and south by Saudi Arabia, and to the west by Israel and the West Bank. The West Bank area (so named because it lies just west of the Jordan River) was under Jordanian rule from 1948 to 1967, but in 1988 Jordan renounced its claims to the area. Jordan has 16 miles (26 km) of coastline on the Gulf of Aqaba in the southwest, where Al-Aqabah, its only port, is located.

Jordan has three major physiographic regions (from east to west): the desert, the uplands east of the Jordan River, and the Jordan Valley (the northwest portion of the great East African Rift System).

The desert region is mostly within the Syrian Desertan extension of the Arabian Desertand occupies the eastern and southern parts of the country, comprising more than four-fifths of its territory. The deserts northern part is composed of volcanic lava and basalt, and its southern part of outcrops of sandstone and granite. The landscape is much eroded, primarily by wind. The uplands east of the Jordan River, an escarpment overlooking the rift valley, have an average elevation of 2,0003,000 feet (600900 metres) and rise to about 5,755 feet (1,754 metres) at Mount Ramm, Jordans highest point, in the south. Outcrops of sandstone, chalk, limestone, and flint extend to the extreme south, where igneous rocks predominate.

The Jordan Valley drops to an average of 1,312 feet (400 metres) below sea level at the Dead Sea, the lowest natural point on the Earths surface.

The Jordan River, approximately 186 miles (300 km) in length, meanders south, draining the waters of Lake Tiberias (better known as the Sea of Galilee), the Yarmk River, and the valley streams of both plateaus into the Dead Sea, which occupies the central area of the valley. The soil of its lower reaches is highly saline, and the shores of the Dead Sea consist of salt marshes that do not support vegetation. To its south, Wadi al-Arabah (also called Wadi al-Jayb), a completely desolate region, is thought to contain mineral resources.

In the northern uplands several valleys containing perennial streams run west; around Al-Karak they flow west, east, and north; south of Al-Karak intermittent valley streams run east toward Al-Jafr Depression.

The countrys best soils are found in the Jordan Valley and in the area southeast of the Dead Sea. The topsoil in both regions consists of alluviumdeposited by the Jordan River and washed from the uplands, respectivelywith the soil in the valley generally being deposited in fans spread over various grades of marl.

Jordans climate varies from Mediterranean in the west to desert in the east and south, but the land is generally arid. The proximity of the Mediterranean Sea is the major influence on climates, although continental air masses and elevation also modify it. Average monthly temperatures at Amman in the north range between 46 and 78 F (8 and 26 C), while at Al-Aqabah in the far south they range between 60 and 91 F (16 and 33 C). The prevailing winds throughout the country are westerly to southwesterly, but spells of hot, dry, dusty winds blowing from the southeast off the Arabian Peninsula frequently occur and bring the country its most uncomfortable weather. Known locally as the khamsin, these winds blow most often in the early and late summer and can last for several days at a time before terminating abruptly as the wind direction changes and much cooler air follows.

Precipitation occurs in the short, cool winters, decreasing from 16 inches (400 mm) annually in the northwest near the Jordan River to less than 4 inches (100 mm) in the south. In the uplands east of the Jordan River, the annual total is about 14 inches (355 mm). The valley itself has a yearly average of 8 inches (200 mm), and the desert regions receive one-fourth of that. Occasional snow and frost occur in the uplands but are rare in the rift valley. As the population increases, water shortages in the major towns are becoming one of Jordans crucial problems.

The flora of Jordan falls into three distinct types: Mediterranean, steppe (treeless plains), and desert. In the uplands the Mediterranean type predominates with scrubby, dense bushes and small trees, while in the drier steppe region to the east species of the genus Artemisia (wormwood) are most frequent. Grasses are the prevalent vegetation on the steppe, but isolated trees and shrubs, such as lotus fruit and the Mount Atlas pistachio, also occur. In the desert, vegetation grows meagrely in depressions and on the sides and floors of the valleys after the scant winter rains.

Only a tiny portion of Jordans area is forested, most of it occurring in the rocky highlands. These forests have survived the depredations of villagers and nomads alike. The Jordanian government promotes reforestation by providing free seedlings to farmers. In the higher regions of the uplands, the predominant types of trees are the Aleppo oak (Quercus infectoria Olivier), the kermes oak (Quercus coccinea), the Palestinian pistachio (Pistacia palaestina), the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), and the eastern strawberry tree (Arbutus andrachne). Wild olives also are found there, and the Phoenician juniper (Juniperus phoenicea L.) occurs in the regions with lower rainfall. The national flower is the black iris (Iris nigricans).

The varied wildlife includes wild boars, ibex, and a species of wild goat found in the gorges and in the Ayn al-Azraq oasis. Hares, jackals, foxes, wildcats, hyenas, wolves, gazelles, blind mole rats, mongooses, and a few leopards also inhabit the area. Centipedes, scorpions, and various types of lizards are found as well. Birds include the golden eagle and the vulture, while wild fowl include the pigeon and the partridge.

The overwhelming majority of the people are Arabs, principally Jordanians and Palestinians; there is also a significant minority of Bedouin, who were by far the largest indigenous group before the influx of Palestinians following the Arab-Israeli wars of 194849 and 1967. Jordanians of Bedouin heritage remain committed to the Hshimite regime, which has ruled the country since 1923, despite having become a minority there. Although the Palestinian population is often critical of the monarchy, Jordan is the only Arab country to grant wide-scale citizenship to Palestinian refugees. Other minorities include a number of Iraqis who fled to Jordan as a result of the Persian Gulf War and Iraq War. There are also smaller Circassian (known locally as Cherkess or Jarkas) and Armenian communities. A small number of Turkmen (who speak either an ancient form of the Turkmen language or the Azeri language) also reside in Jordan.

The indigenous Arabs, whether Muslim or Christian, used to trace their ancestry from the northern Arabian Qays (Madd, Nizr, Adnn, or Isml) tribes or from the southern Arabian Yaman (Ban Kalb or Qan) groups. Only a few tribes and towns have continued to observe this Qays-Yaman divisiona pre-Islamic split that was once an important, although broad, source of social identity as well as a point of social friction and conflict.

Nearly all the people speak Arabic, the countrys official language. There are various dialects spoken, with local inflections and accents, but these are mutually intelligible and similar to the type of Levantine Arabic spoken in parts of Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria. There is, as in all parts of the Arab world, a significant difference between the written languageknown as Modern Standard Arabicand the colloquial, spoken form. The former is similar to Classical Arabic and is taught in school. Most Circassians have adopted Arabic in daily life, though some continue to speak Adyghe (one of the Caucasian languages). Armenian is also spoken in pockets, but bilingualism or outright assimilation to the Arabic language is common among all minorities.

Virtually the entire population is Sunni Muslim; Christians constitute most of the rest, of whom two-thirds adhere to the Greek Orthodox church. Other Christian groups include the Greek Catholics, also called the Melchites, or Catholics of the Byzantine rite, who recognize the supremacy of the Roman pope; the Roman Catholic community, headed by a pope-appointed patriarch; and the small Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch, or Syrian Jacobite Church, whose members use Syriac in their liturgy. Most non-Arab Christians are Armenians, and the majority belong to the Gregorian, or Armenian, Orthodox church, while the rest attend the Armenian Catholic Church. There are several Protestant denominations representing communities whose converts came almost entirely from other Christian sects.

The Druze, an offshoot of the Isml Shite sect, number a few hundred and reside in and around Amman. About 1,000 Bahwho in the 19th century also split off from Shite Islamlive in Al-Adasiyyah in the Jordan Valley. The Armenians, Druze, and Bah are both religious and ethnic communities. The Circassians are mostly Sunni, and they along with the closely related Chechens (Shshn)a group numbering about 1,000, who are descendants of 19th-century immigrants from the Caucasus Mountainsmake up the most important non-Arab minority.

The landscape falls into two regionsthe desert zone and the cultivated zoneeach of which is associated with its own mode of living. The tent-dwelling nomads (Bedouin, or Bad), who make up less than one-tenth of the population, generally inhabit the desert, some areas of the steppe, and the uplands. The tent-dwelling Bedouin people have decreased in number because the government has successfully enforced their permanent settlement; urban residents who trace their roots to the Bedouin make up more than one-third of Jordanians.

The eastern Bedouin are principally camel breeders and herders, while the western Bedouin herd sheep and goats. There are some seminomads, in whom the modes of life of the desert and the cultivated zones merge. These people adopt a nomadic existence during part of the year but return to their lands and homes in time to practice agriculture. The two largest nomadic groups of Jordan are the Ban (Ban) akhr and Ban al-uwayt. The grazing grounds of both are entirely within Jordan, as is the case with the smaller tribe of Sirn. There are numerous lesser groups, such as the Ban asan and Ban Khlid as well as the Hawazim, Aiyyah, and Sharaft. These traditionally paid protection money to larger groups. The Ruwlah (Rwala) tribe, which is not indigenous, passes through Jordan in its yearly wandering from Syria to Saudi Arabia.

Rural residents, including small numbers of Bedouin, constitute about one-fifth of the population. The average village contains a cluster of houses and other buildings, including an elementary school and a mosque, with pasturage on the outskirts. A medical dispensary and a post office may be found in the larger villages, together with a general store and a small caf, whose owners are usually part-time farmers. Kinship relationships are patriarchal, while extended-family ties govern social relationships and tribal organization.

AmmanAra Guler, IstanbulSome three-fourths of all Jordanians live in urban areas. The main population centres are Amman, Al-Zarq, Irbid, and Al-Ruayfah. Many of the smaller towns have only a few thousand inhabitants. Most towns have hospitals, banks, government and private schools, mosques, churches, libraries, and entertainment facilities, and some have institutions of higher learning and newspapers. Amman and Al-Zarq, and to some extent Irbid, have more modern urban characteristics than do the smaller towns.

Jordan: population densityEncyclopdia Britannica, Inc.The population structure is predominantly young; persons under age 15 constitute roughly two-fifths of the population. The birth rate is high, and the countrys population growth rate is about double the world average. The average life expectancy is about 70 years. Internal migration from rural to urban centres has added a burden to the economy; however, a large number of Jordanians live and work abroad.

Some one-third of Jordans population are Palestinians. The influx of Palestinian refugees not only altered Jordans demographic map but has also affected its political, social, and economic life. Jordans population in the late 1940s was between 200,000 and 250,000. After the 194849 Arab-Israeli war and the annexation of the West Bank, Jordanian citizenship was granted to some 400,000 Palestinians who were residents of and remained in the West Bank and to about half a million refugees from the new Israeli state. Many of these refugees settled east of the Jordan River. Between 1949 and 1967, Palestinians continued to move east in large numbers. After the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, an estimated 310,000 to 350,000 Palestinians, mostly from the West Bank, sought refuge in Jordan; thereafter immigration from the West Bank continued at a lower rate. During the Persian Gulf War (199091), some 300,000 additional Palestinians fled (or were expelled) from Kuwait to Jordan, and as many as 1.7 million Iraqis flooded into the kingdom during the war and the years that followed. Another smaller wave arrived in 2003 after the start of the Iraq War. Most of these Iraqis left, but perhaps 200,000 to 300,000 remain. Only a small fraction are registered as refugees.

Most Palestinians are employed and hold full Jordanian citizenship. By the early 21st century, approximately 1.6 million Palestinians were registered with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), an organization providing education, medical care, relief assistance, and social services. About one-sixth of these refugees lived in camps in Jordan.

Although Jordans economy is relatively small and faces numerous obstacles, it is comparatively well diversified. Trade and finance combined account for nearly one-third of Jordans gross domestic product (GDP); transportation and communication, public utilities, and construction represent one-fifth of total GDP, and mining and manufacturing constitute nearly that proportion. Remittances from Jordanians working abroad are a major source of foreign exchange.

However, although Jordans economy is ostensibly based on private enterprise, servicesparticularly government spendingaccount for about one-fourth of GDP and employ roughly one-third of the workforce. In addition, Jordan has increasingly been plagued by recession, debt, and unemployment since the mid-1990s, and the small size of the Jordanian market, fluctuations in agricultural production, a lack of capital, and the presence of large numbers of refugees have made it necessary for Jordan to continue to seek foreign aid. The Jordanian government has been slow to implement privatization. Despite efforts by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank to boost the private sectorincluding agreements to write off the countrys external debt and loans from the World Bank designed to revitalize Jordans economyit was only in 1999 that the government began introducing a number of economic reforms. These efforts included Jordans entry into the World Trade Organization (in 2000) and the partial privatization of some state-owned enterprises.

Perhaps most importantly, Jordans geographic location has made it and its economy highly vulnerable to political instability in the region. The Jordanian economy was resilient and growing before the Six-Day War of June 1967, and the West Bank, prior to its occupation by Israel during that conflict, contributed about one-third of Jordans total domestic income. Economic growth continued after 1967 at a slower pace but was revitalized by a series of state economic plans. Trade increased between Jordan and Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War (198088), because Iraq required access to Jordans port of Al-Aqabah. Jordan initially supported Iraqi president addm ussein when Iraq occupied Kuwait during the Persian Gulf War, but it eventually agreed to the United Nations trade sanctions against Iraq, its principal trading partner, and thereby put its whole economy in jeopardy. External emergency aid helped Jordan weather the crisis, and the economy was boosted by the sudden influx of Palestinians from Kuwait in 1991, many of whom brought in capital. During 2003 the construction industry recovered with the arrival of many thousands of people fleeing Iraq, and Jordan became a major service centre for those working to reconstruct that country. Despite the support of the government for IMF and World Bank plans to increase the private sector, the state remains the dominant force in Jordans economy.

Only a tiny fraction of Jordans land is arable, and the country imports some foodstuffs to meet its needs. Wheat and barley are the main crops of the rain-fed uplands, and irrigated land in the Jordan Valley produces citrus and other fruits, potatoes, vegetables (tomatoes and cucumbers), and olives. Pastureland is limited; although artesian wells have been dug to increase its area, much former pasture area has been turned over to the cultivation of olive and fruit trees, and large areas have been degraded to the point that they can barely support livestock. Sheep and goats are the most important livestock, but there are also some cattle, camels, horses, donkeys, and mules. Poultry is also kept.

Mineral resources include large deposits of phosphates, potash, limestone, and marble, as well as dolomite, kaolin, and salt. More recently discovered minerals include barite (the principal ore of the metallic element barium), quartzite, gypsum (used as a fertilizer), and feldspar, and there are unexploited deposits of copper, uranium, and shale oil. Although the country has no significant oil deposits, modest reserves of natural gas are located in its eastern desert. In 2003 the first section of a new pipeline from Egypt began delivering natural gas to Al-Aqabah.

Virtually all electric power in Jordan is generated by thermal plants, most of which are oil-fired. The major power stations are linked by a transmission system. By the early 21st century the government had completed a program to link the major cities and towns by a countrywide grid.

Beginning in the final decades of the 20th century, access to water became a major problem for Jordanas well as a point of conflict among states in the regionas overuse of the Jordan River (and its tributary, the Yarmk River) and excessive tapping of the regions natural aquifers led to shortages throughout Jordan and surrounding countries. In 2000 Jordan and Syria secured funding for constructing a dam on the Yarmk River that, in addition to storing water for Jordan, would also generate electricity for Syria. Construction of the Wadah (Unity) Dam began in 2004.

Manufacturing is concentrated around Amman. The extraction of phosphate, petroleum refining, and cement production are the countrys major heavy industries. Food, clothing, and a variety of consumer goods also are produced.

The Central Bank of Jordan (Al-Bank al-Markaz al-Urdun) issues the dinar, the national currency. There are many national and foreign banks in addition to credit institutions. The government has participated with private enterprise in establishing the largest mining, industrial, and tourist firms in the country and also owns a significant share of the largest companies. The Amman Stock Exchange (Brat Ammn; formerly the Amman Financial Market) is one of the largest stock markets in the Arab world.

Jordans primary exports are clothing, chemicals and chemical products, and potash and phosphates; the main imports are machinery and apparatus, crude petroleum, and food products. Major trading partners include Saudi Arabia, the United States, and the European Union (EU). In 2000 Jordan signed a bilateral free trade agreement with the United States. The value of exports has been growing, but it does not cover that of imports; the deficit is financed by foreign grants, loans, and other forms of capital transfers. Although Jordans trade deficit has been large, it has been offset somewhat by revenue from tourism, remittances sent by Jordanians working abroad, earnings from foreign investments made by the central bank, and subsidies from other Arab and non-Arab governments.

Services, including public administration, defense, and retail sales, form the single most important component of Jordans economy in both value and employment. The countrys vulnerable geography has led to high military expenditures, which are well above the world average.

The Jordanian government vigorously promotes tourism, and the number of tourists visiting Jordan has grown dramatically since the mid-1990s. Visitors come mainly from the West to see the old biblical cities of the Jordan Valley and such wonders as the ancient city of Petra, designated a World Heritage site in 1985. Income from tourism, mostly consisting of foreign reserves, has become a major factor in Jordans efforts to reduce its balance-of-payments deficit.

Jordan has also lost much of its skilled labour to neighbouring countriesas many as 400,000 people left the kingdom in the early 1980salthough the problem has eased somewhat. This change is a result both of better employment opportunities within Jordan itself and of a curb on foreign labour demands by the Persian Gulf states.

The majority of the workforce is men, with women constituting roughly one-seventh of the total. The government employs nearly half of those working. About one-seventh of the population is unemployed, although income per capita has increased. Labour unions and employer organizations are legal, but the trade-union movement is weak; this is partly offset by the government, which has its own procedures for settling labour disputes.

About half of the governments revenue is derived from taxes. Even though the government has made a great effort to reform the income tax, both to increase revenue and to redistribute income, revenue from indirect taxes continues to exceed that from direct taxes. Tax measures have been adopted to increase the rate of savings necessary for financing investments, and the government has implemented tax exemptions on foreign investments and on the transfer of foreign profits and capital.

Jordan has a main, secondary, and rural road network, most of which is hard-surfaced. This roadway system, maintained by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing, not only links the major cities and towns but also connects the kingdom with neighbouring countries. One of the main traffic arteries is the AmmanJarashAl-Ramth highway, which links Jordan with Syria. The route from Amman via Man to the port of Al-Aqabah is the principal route to the sea. From Man the Desert Highway passes through Al-Mudawwarah, linking Jordan with Saudi Arabia. The Amman-Jerusalem highway, passing through Nr, is a major tourist artery. The government-operated Hejaz-Jordan Railway extends from Dar in the north via Amman to Man in the south. The Aqaba Railway Corporation operates a southern line that runs to the port of Al-Aqabah and connects to the Hejaz-Jordan Railway at Ban al-Ghl. Rail connections also join Dar in the north with Damascus, Syria.

Royal Jordanian is the countrys official airline, offering worldwide service. Queen Alia International Airport near Al-Jzah, south of Amman, opened in 1983. Amman and Al-Aqabah have smaller international airports.

In 1994 Jordan introduced a program to reform its telecommunication system. The government-owned Jordan Telecommunications Corporation, the sole service provider, had been unable to meet demand or provide adequate service, particularly in rural areas; it was privatized in 1997. Since then, the use of cellular telephones has mushroomed, far outstripping standard telephone use. In addition, Internet use has grown dramatically.

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Jordan | history - geography | Britannica.com

MH-17 ‘Investigation’: Secret August 8th Agreement Seeps …

Posted By on September 13, 2015

Perpetrator of the Downingin Ukraine, of the Malaysian Airliner, Will Stay Hidden

Eric Zuesse

Regarding what caused the downing of the Malaysian airliner MH-17 in Ukraine on July 17th, the Ukrainian news agency UNIAN, reported ina brief Russian-language news story on August 12th, that four days earlier (August 8th) a representative of that nations Prosecutor General office, Yuri Boychenko, had said that (as auto-translated by google),the results [of the investigation] will be announced upon completion of theinvestigationand with the consent of all the partieswho signed the corresponding agreement. This UNIAN report said that, As part of the four-partyagreement signed on August 8between Ukraine, the Netherlands, Belgium andAustralia [all of which nations are allies of the United States and are cooperating with its new Cold War against Russia], information on the investigation into the disasterMalaysian Boeing-777will not be disclosed. In other words: the official investigation is being carried out by four nations that, as U.S. allies, are hostile toward Russia. One of those four nations, Ukraine, is not only a prime suspect in possibly having shot this airliner down, but is currentlywaging a hot war to ethnically-cleanse the pro-Russian population out of southeastern Ukraine; and the initial news reports in Western news media regarding the downing of MH-17 had stenographically repeated the Ukrainian Goverhments line that said that this airliner was probably downed by the local rebels there, who were trying to shoot down the Ukrainian Governments bombers that are constantly bombing them. Some Western news reports even speculated that perhaps Russia itself had shot this airliner down. If the UNIAN news-report is correct, then there is no way that the investigation will be able to be released to the public if it indicates that the Ukrainian Government (which, according to that news-report hasveto power over the making-public of the studys findings) is blamed for having shot the airliner down.

On August 12th, another pro-Ukrainian-Government news site, gordonua.com, headlined, as auto-translated by google,GPU: The results of the investigation [into the] crash [of] the Boeing 777 will be released with the consent of the parties,and said, Information about the accident MH17 in the Donetsk region will be published in obtaining the consent of all the parties that are involved in the investigation. UNIAN was cited there as gordonuas sole source. News media didnt probe the matter further.

Until 23 August 2014, that seems to have been the last of the matter, as far as news reports were concerned, and both of those two news reports were just tiny squibs in the Russian language, published only in Ukraine, by supporters of the Obama-installed Ukrainian Government. The news was ignored both inside and outside Ukraine.

Then, on 23 August 2014,Global Research News published the first English-language news-report on this matter; it was based on the second Russian-language news-report, the one that had appeared at gordonua.com on August 12th. Global Research concluded from it that,The Causes of the MH17 Crash are Classified.Of course, this way of phrasing the matter is a slight oversimplification, because, actually, the findings will remain classified only if, and to the extent that, the Ukrainian Government is found to have caused the airliners downing. In other words: this investigation will not be published unless the Ukrainian Government and the other three nations that are performing it agree unanimously to publish it.

So: imagine a murder-case in which 298 innocents are slaughtered, and in which there are only three suspects (here: Ukraine, the pro-Russian rebels, and Russia itself), and one of those three suspects has veto-power on the making-public of the investigation into that crime. Well: this is that murder-case, and the veto-holding investigator and suspect is Ukraine. Neither of the other two suspects holds any such veto-power over this investigation.

In a sense, whether the official investigation into the downing will ever be made public is insignificant, just as would be any investigation that is carried out by, or with veto-power from, one of the prime suspects in the crime that is being investigated.

The international public would obviously need to be fools in order for them to trust such an investigation as that.Case closed?

President Obama got the economic-sanctions-increase against Russia, that he had wanted out of this shoot-down. Who needs any investigation to determine this mass-killings actual perpetrator? Certainly not Obama.Ultimately, it is he who caused it, because he was the person behind this ethnic-cleansing campaign, without which ethnic-cleansing campaign the airliner itself wouldnt have been downed.

The downing of this airliner goesstraight backtothe U.S. White House, which has already won what it wanted from it.

Those 298 corpses are just casualties ofthis U.S.-caused war, like the Ukrainians are casualties of itwho live in the portions of Ukrainethat had overwhelmingly elected in 2010 the Ukrainian President whom Obama ousted from office in 2014. Obama doesnt want a President like that elected ever again in Ukraine; so, those voters are being gotten rid of, and ethnic cleansing is how its being done. Andthe residents there are likewise not being heard from in Western news media, and nobody in the West is asking these victims what they think of the Ukrainian Government that Obama installed. Perhaps thats because they are increasingly becoming a guerilla army to defeat the regime that Obama installed.

As to the specific operation that downed the plane, there is already a lot more information about that than the official investigation, if thats ever published, is likely to reveal, andit points clearly to the Ukrainian military as the perpetrator, in yet another of their false flag operations. And unlike the Ukrainian Governments charges that rebels shot it down by mistake, Ukraine shot it down with deadly purpose and knowing full well what they were doing.

-

Investigative historian Eric Zuesse is the author, most recently, ofTheyre Not Even Close: The Democratic vs. Republican Economic Records, 1910-2010,and ofCHRISTS VENTRILOQUISTS: The Event that Created Christianity.

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MH-17 'Investigation': Secret August 8th Agreement Seeps ...

One country that won’t be taking Syrian refugees: Israel …

Posted By on September 13, 2015

Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu on Sunday rejected a call to host refugees from Syria and elsewhere, saying that while Israel is "not indifferent to the human tragedy of the refugees," it is not in a position to take them in.

Netanyahu was responding to Israeli liberals led by opposition leader Isaac Herzog, who said Jewish history demands that the nation show compassion. Having themselves felt the worlds silence, Herzog said, Jews cannot remain indifferent to the carnage in Syria and the refugees plight.

Herzogs comments met with support from other liberal lawmakers such as Zehava Galon, who called for opening Israels gates to a token number of refugees from its violence-stricken northern neighbor.

In responding to such statements, Netanyahu stressed Israels medical care for over 1,000 injured Syrians, as well as efforts to aid African nations and thus stem the flow of migrants. However, he said that Israels lack of demographic and geographic depth requires controlling its borders against both illegal migrants and terrorism.

His reference to demographics referred to oft-expressed concerns in Israel about the country's Jewish population being overwhelmed by non-Jews.

Israel's 6.2 million Jews make up nearly 75% of the country's population, with its Arab citizens comprising more than 20%. In addition, an estimated 4.6 million Palestinians live in occupied territories in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

NEWSLETTER:Get the day's top headlines from Times Editor Davan Maharaj >>

For many Israeli Jews, even the smallest number of additional non-Jews is a potential threat, and the Syrian refugee crisis and the debate about Israels role has reawakened the countrys most deep-seated fear -- that of losing the Jewish majority and subsequently the character of the Jewish state.

Even those in support of opening the gates to refugees say they mean 10,000 at the most, with some calling for a token action such as that taken by former Prime Minister Menachem Begin, who in 1977 took in about 70 refugees from Vietnam.

Nachman Shai, a lawmaker from Herzogs party, was among those who were adamant that Israel had an obligation to do something. We will not be able to solve the refugee problem but we cannot plug our ears and look away, he said.

However, Immigrant Absorption Minister Zeev Elkin accused Herzog of gambling on Israels strategic interests for the sake of one minute of favor in international media. He also expressed the fear that the refugee crisis could give Palestinians an opening to bring the so-called right of return, which would allow Palestinians to return to land they occupied before the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, in through the back door.

Transportation Minister Israel Katz said it would be a mistake for Israel to get involved in the Syrian civil war by taking in refugees. We are too close, too involved. We are not a European country, he said.

Sobelman is a special correspondent.

MORE SYRIAN REFUGEES COVERAGE

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One country that won't be taking Syrian refugees: Israel ...

Hamas hatred: New documentary shows Iranian-backed terror …

Posted By on September 13, 2015

HAIFA, Israel - A new documentary grimly predicts the role Iran plays in financing terror organizations and the indoctrination of children at military summer camps in the Middle East will significantly increase as a result of the imminent release of huge sums of money to Tehran under the nuclear agreement endorsed by the Obama administration.

"Iran: Billions for Terror?" depicts children blowing up mock Israeli villages and parroting Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Khamenei, who is seen telling an adoring Iranian crowd, The entire world particularly the world of Islam is duty-bound and obliged to help the Palestinian people with as many weapons as possible.

Produced by the Center for Near East Policy Research (CNEPR) and filmed by a team of Arab reporters at various locations in Gaza this summer, one of the most disturbing aspects of the footage is the recent introduction of terror training for little girls. The Hamas summer camps mantra, We will sacrifice our lives for the sake of Allah is chanted over and over.

"With billions of dollars of unfrozen assets expected to be unfrozen and available to Iran, Iranian leaders have stated that they will continue to fund Hamas."

- Promo for "Iran: Billions for Terror?"

"With billions of dollars of unfrozen assets expected to be unfrozen and available to Iran, Iranian leaders have stated that they will continue to fund Hamas," states a promo for the film. "This film includes interviews with boy and girl child soldiers of Hamas, who describe their intention to destroy Israelwith guns, and other weapons."

Hamas relationship with Iran has notably improved over the last few years with funding and weapons from Tehran continuing to reach Gaza. Despite the blockade by Israel and Egypt of the enclave, the munitions find their way into their hands of Hamas, as well as Palestinian Islamic Jihad and other terror organizations.

Hamas counselors such as Hassan Suhare appear on the film, and express no qualms about the training of child soldiers.

In Gaza there are over 50 camps in which 15,000 children are being trained. [They] underwent weapons and military training, he said. We were able to help the kids overcome their fear and then the children opened fire. Yesterday the kids blew up model Zionist [Israeli] villages.

Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh is seen proudly declaring, This camp graduation, celebration, is part of a holy effort and a continued struggle as girls as young as six are shown dressed in military fatigues and carry replica machine guns.

Jerusalem will be reconquered only by the weapons of our resistance, says Esra Halil Juma, a military counselor from the girls camp. I call to the people: Please point your guns in the face of the enemy until we liberate Jerusalem and build Palestine, Inshallah [with Gods will].

Sabrin Barakat, another Hamas military girls camp counselor adds, Jerusalem belongs just to the Muslims. The Jews are pigs and dont have any connections with Al Aqsa and Jerusalem. All they have is a pig pen.

The Center has for years documented the cruel indoctrination of Palestinian children, as well as the role of the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East, which is charged with running schools in the Palestinian territories. The Center has charged that UNRWA worked with the Gaza teachers union allegedly taken over by Hamas in 1999, but such cooperation and the historical use of UNRWA schools for Hamas military camps has been denied by the UN agency that reportedly faced a shortfall of around $100 million ahead of the recent start of the school year.

Our education system is entirely independent and we have a completely different schooling system [to Hamas], UNRWA spokesman Chris Gunness told FoxNews.com earlier this year. There is no question of Hamas approving anything Were educating children after [last summers] conflict where hundreds of thousands were displaced.

David Bedein, director of the Center, told FoxNews.com his group and other advocates finally succeeded this year in getting Hamas barred from summer UNRWA programs. While he believes no UNRWA facilities were used this summer for Hamas camps, he said many of the children participating attend UNRWA schools.

But there have been several notable signs recently that cash-strapped and chronically corrupt Palestinian leaders are souring on UNRWA, which has many regional observers fear the worrying prospect of Iran - flush with funds released as part of the controversial nuclear deal - stepping into the breach and filling the void. There is genuine concern that Iranian funding of its version of child education in Hamas-controlled Gaza and in other areas such as southern Lebanon could accelerate the breeding of a new generation of young jihadists bent on the destruction of Israel.

Paul Alster is an Israel-based journalist. Follow him on Twitter @paul_alster and visit his website: http://www.paulalster.com.

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Hamas hatred: New documentary shows Iranian-backed terror ...

Sephardim | Jewish Virtual Library

Posted By on September 13, 2015

by Rebecca Weiner

The descendants of Jews who left Spain or Portugal after the 1492 expulsion are referred to as Sephardim. The word Sephardim comes from the Hebrew word for Spain, Sepharad, that is stated in the Bible.

It is believed that Jews have lived in Spain since the era of King Solomon (c.965-930 B.C.E.). Little information can be found on these Jews until the beginning of the first century. We do know that in 305 C.E., the Council of Toledo passed an edict forbidding Jews from blessing the crops of non-Jews and prohibiting Jews and non-Jews from eating together.

- Visigoth Rule - The Golden Age - Christian Rule, Inquisition & Expulsion - Exiled Sephardic Communities - World War II-Present - Language - Religious Practices

In 409 C.E., the Visigoths conquered Spain. The Visigoths were Arian Christians, followers of Arius who reasoned that Jesus could not logically co-exist with God and must therefore be subservient to him.

In 587 C.E., King Reccared, the Visigoth king in Spain, converted to Roman Catholicism and made it the state religion. Subsequently, the Church was to exert powerful influence on all aspects of social life. Almost immediately, in 589 C.E., a canon was passed forbidding the marriage between Christians and Jews; and in 612 C.E., the Council of Gundemar of Toledo ordered that all Jews submit to baptism within the year.

In 638 C.E., the Arian Visigoths declared that only Catholics could live in Spain.

The situation improved in 711 when Spain fell under the rule of the Muslim Moors. Both Muslims and Jews built a civilization, based in Cordoba, known as Al-Andalus, which was more advanced than any civilization in Europe at that time. Jews were able to coexist peacefully with their neighbors; however, they were still treated as dhimmis, "People of the Book" (Jews and Christians) who are protected under Islamic law. Jews did not have complete autonomy and had to pay a special tax, the jizha , but were able to freely practice their religion.

The era of Muslim rule in Spain (8th-11th century) was considered the "Golden Age" for Spanish Jewry. Jewish intellectual and spiritual life flourished and many Jews served in Spanish courts. Jewish economic expansion was unparalleled. In Toledo, Jews were involved in translating Arabic texts to the romance languages, as well as translating Greek and Hebrew texts into Arabic. Jews also contributed to botany, geography, medicine, mathematics, poetry and philosophy.

A number of well-known Jewish physicians practiced during this period, including Hasdai Ibn Shaprut (915-970), who was the doctor for the Caliph (leader of Spain). Many famous Jewish figures lived during the Golden Age and contributed to making this a flourishing period for Jewish thought. These included Samuel Ha-Nagid, Moses ibn Ezra, Solomon ibn Gabirol Judah Halevi and Moses Maimonides.

Jews lived separately in aljamas (Jewish quarters). They were given administrative control over their communities and managed their own communal affairs. Jews had their own court system, known as the Bet Din. Rabbis served as judges and rendered both religious and civil legal opinions.

Islamic culture also influenced the Jews. Muslim and Jewish customs and practices became intertwined. For example, Arabic was used for prayers rather than Hebrew or Spanish. Before entering the synagogue, Jews washed their hands and feet, which is a practice done before entering a mosque. Arab melodies were used for Jewish songs. Jews wore the clothing style of their Moorish neighbors, although they were not allowed to wear silk or furs.

Jews lived peacefully in Al-Andulus for 400 years. The Golden Age for Jewry in Muslim Spain declined after the Almovarids gained power in 1055 and continued to deteriorate after the Almohads came to power in 1147. Jews continued to work as moneylenders, jewelers, cobblers, tailors and tanners, however, they had to wear distinguishing clothing, such as a yellow turban.

The Christians conquered Toledo in 1098 and the Jews in Christian Spain prospered, while those in Muslim Spain suffered under the Almohad dynasty. Both Jews and Muslims were involved in the cultural, economic, intellectual, financial and political life of Christian Spain. By the mid-13th century, the Christians controlled most of Spain and increasingly forced Jews to convert to Christianity. Those who converted became known as Marranos or New Christians. Marranos are also known as crypto-Jews because they taught their children and practiced Judaism in secret. During this period, Jews were forced to participate in "religious" disputes with Christians counterparts.

Anti-Jewish riots broke out in 1391 in several Spanish cities and the situation worsened for the Jewish community. New Christians were tortured or killed in the Spanish Inquisition during the 15th century. Father Tomas de Torquemada felt that if the Jews remained in Spain, then they would influence the new converts to Christianity. After the capture of Granada from Muslim forces, Father Torquemada convinced King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella that the Jewish community was expendable. In 1492, Isabella and Ferdinand commanded that all Jews who refused to convert to Christianity be expelled from Spain. The Jews were given four months to leave Spain and were forced to sell their houses and businesses at low prices. It is estimated that 100,000 Jews left Spain at this time. The expulsion from Spain is commemorated every year by all Jews on the holiday of Tisha BAv.

Many Spanish Jews settled in Portugal, which allowed the practice of Judaism. In 1497, however, Portugal also expelled its Jews. King Manuel of Portugal agreed to marry the daughter of Spains monarchs. One of the conditions for the marriage was the expulsion of Portugals Jewish community. In actuality only eight Jews were exiled from Portugal and the rest converted, under duress, to Christianity.

In the first Sephardi Diaspora, a large number of Jews settled in North Africa and in the Ottoman Empire, especially, Turkey and Greece. Spanish exiles brought with them a unique culture, language (Ladino) and traditions. Many of these immigrants continued to speak Ladino until the 20th century.

A Marrano Diaspora took place a century later. Some Marranos had settled in Portugal and eventually moved to Holland, where they were allowed to outwardly practice Judaism. Many settled in Western Europe and moved to the Americas. Marranos who settled in Latin America continued practicing crypto-Judaism for many years because Spain began an inquisition in its New World colonies. Fear of persecution led Crypto-Jews to settle in remote villages. Today, descendants of crypto-Jews can be found in Colorado and New Mexico.

Europe

Large Sephardic communities were founded in Venice, Leghorn, London, Bordeaux, Bayonne and Hamburg. These immigrants spoke Portugese and Spanish and many adapted mainstream Western European culture. Successful business enterprises were started by the Sephardim and their trade networks became famous worldwide.

Throughout the medieval period in Europe, the Sephardic Jews were treated as elites among Jews. Many times they had a secular education and often had great wealth. In the 18th century, the Sephardic Jews who lived in Amsterdam and in London, tended to discriminate against non-Sephardic Jews who wanted to pray at their synagogues by forcing them to sit separately from the rest of the congregation.

North Africa and the Arab World

For hundreds of years, Sephardic Jews lived, as dhimmis, in relative peace with Muslim neighbors and rulers in North Africa and in the Ottoman Empire. They were considered second-class citizens, but were free to practice their own religion and participate in commerce. Similar to Spain and Portugal during the Golden Era, the Sephardic upper class in the Ottoman empire were employed as translators.

The Sephardic communities in the Arab world were more receptive to modernity than their Ashkenazi counterparts in Europe. The Zionist movement became popular among Sephardic Jews in North Africa. Many Sephardic rabbis in the Ottoman Empire supported Zionism and the Zionist movement spread to many Muslim countries in North Africa, such as in Egypt and Tunisia.

In World War II, Sephardim in Europe suffered the same fate as other Jews, and most perished during the Holocaust. In a few places, such as Holland, they received some preferential treatment, meaning they were among the last to be liquidated.

After the establishment of the State of Israel, conditions for Jews in many Islamic countries grew increasingly uncomfortable and, in some cases, their lives were threatened. In the 1950's and 1960's, tens of thousands of Sephardic Jews fled from North Africa and other countries in the Middle East to settle in Israel, usually being forced by the Muslim authorities to leave behind most of their worldly possessions. Once they came to Israel, most of the Sephardic immigrants were put in transit camps and became dependent on welfare. The conditions in these camps were very bad and it was difficult for the newcomers to work their way out of the lower rung of Israeli society because they had less education than the established Ashkenazic community. Consequently, many worked in blue-collar professions.

Today, tensions remain between Ashkenazim and Sephardim in Israel because of the poor treatment the latter received and the long, difficult road Sephardic Jews have had to travel to approach parity in society. Though they have not yet achieved equality, Sephardic Jews increasingly occupy positions of prestige and influence. Moroccan-born David Levy, for example, has served as foreign minister and, in July 2000, Iranian-born Moshe Katsav was elected president.

Besides Israel, other large Sephardic communities developed in Central and South America, Rhodesia and the Belgian Congo. Meanwhile, the existing communities in New York, Paris and London grew. One of the most famous Sephardic synagogues is Congregation Shearith Israel, the first Jewish congregation in North America, and the only Jewish congregation in New York from its founding in 1654 until 1825.

The Sephardi Jews preserved their special language, which was a combination of Hebrew and Spanish, known as Ladino. Ladino is still spoken by some Sephardic communities, such as those in Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Rumania, France and Latin America. Today the largest Ladino-speaking community can be found in Israel. One can also read Ladino in Sephardic literature.

When Jews left Spain and Portugal they continued to speak Ladino, in the same grammar and vocabulary of 14th and 15th century Spanish. The Sephardic exile communities of Amsterdam, London and Italy were still in contact with Spain and hence they continued to speak Castillian Spanish.

Exile communities in the Ottoman Empire, however, retained the 14th and 15th century Spanish and borrowed words from Hebrew, Arabic Greek, Turkish and French and diverged considerably from Castillian Spanish. There are many different Ladino dialects. An Oriental Ladino was used in Turkey and Rhodes, while a Western Ladino was spoken in Greece, Macedonia, Bosnia, Serbia and Rumania.

Ladino is written using Hebrew letters and often uses the Rashi script. In fact, Rashi script was originally a Ladino script; however, after Rashis death, this script was used to differentiate his commentary from others ones. More recently, in the 20th century, Ladino has been written using the Latin alphabet.

Sephardic and Ashkenazi Jews share the same tenets of Judaism, follow the Babylonian Talmud and the Shulkhan Arukh. Differences arise in customs and in liturgy. For example, on Passover, Sephardic Jews eat kitnyot, rice and corn products. Also, at many Sephardic sedars, the father will reenact the experience of gaining freedom by circling the sedar table and holding a symbolic bag over his shoulder.

Other differences exist in the way Sephardic Jews wind their tefillin straps outwards, whereas Ashkenazi Jews wind the tefillin inwards. Sephardic grooms are honored with an aliyah to the Torah on the Shabbat after their wedding, whereas Ashkenazi grooms are called up to the Torah the Shabbat before the wedding.

Sephardic Torah scrolls are usually stored in a large wooden cylinder, which stands erect when opened. The parchment is in an upright position when read, whereas, Ashkenazi scrolls just have an embroidered cover and the scrolls are read while lying flat on a table.

Sephardic liturgy uses the same basic prayers, but add different psalms and poems. The prayer, Ein Keloyheinu, is recited at the Saturday morning services for both Sephardic and Ashkenazic Jews, however, it is also read daily by Sephardic Jews. Sephardim also use a different cantillation for reading the Torah and different melodies for prayers. All Sephardic synagogues are traditional, women are seated separately, typically in a balcony.

Sources: Congregation Shearith Israel Golden Age of Spain. Sephardic Adventure. Marks, Scott Alfassa. "The Jews in Islamic Spain." Sephardic House. Sephardim. Encyclopedia Judaica. CD -Rom Edition 1995. The Sephardim or Spanish Jews Stillman, Norman A. The Jews of Arab Lands in Modern Times. The Jewish Publication Society of America. 1991. Telushkin, Rabbi Joseph. Jewish Literacy: The Most Important Things to Know About the Jewish Religion, Its People and Its History. William Morrow and Company, Inc. 1991. Ward, Seth Dr. Sephardim and Crypto-Judaism: Definition of Terms and Brief History

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Holocaust denial denial – Uncyclopedia, the content-free …

Posted By on September 12, 2015

One of the many photographs that Holocaust denial deniers claim to be digitally retouched or "nonexistent".

Holocaust denial denial is the belief that Holocaust denial never occurred or at least not to the degree that many believe it to. Holocaust denial deniers suggest that Holocaust denial or "Holohoax denial" is a crock of shit as are its supporters, who they also claim don't exist".

Holocaust denial denial accepts the commonly accepted idea that the Jews and other minority groups were killed in Nazi concentration camps. Also prominent is the belief that the Nazis tried to cover up the true events and/or redirect blame for their crimes to the victims, creating sympathy for their cause. In addition, beliefs that the Germans had always planned to frame foreign propaganda for their crimes even from before the war is common, but not universal among Holocaust denial deniers. Some renounce the last claim and assert that it was simply a move made when the prospect fortuitously presented itself.

In summation, Holocaust denial deniers generally believe that the Holocaust was orchestrated by the Nazis for the purpose of restricting living space in Germany to only the rightful Aryan race. While the above is important, it only serves to solidify their claims. Their main claims are as follows:

Holocaust denial deniers argue that unlike Holocaust deniers (whom they deny the existence of), there is an abundant amount of evidence to back up their claims. Indeed, many concentration camps have been found throughout Europe since the end of World War II. Conditions at these camps have been found to be completely inhospitable, providing evidence that their purpose was the methodical slaughter of all people held there. Often mass graves have also been excavated near the sites, demonstrating that what took place was a genocide.

Testimonies of Schutzstaffel officers being tried for crimes against humanity for their involvement in the Holocaust ranged from, "Oh, I'd say about six million Jews or so." to, "Yes, we did it." Almost all of them claimed that the accusations were completely true.

Holocaust denial deniers have also asserted that the lack of prominent articles regarding Holocaust denial is evidence enough that Holocaust denial doesn't exist and is probably a botched hoax of some sorts. The claim that David Irving and other figures who have openly spoken about Holocaust denial "don't exist" is also somehow justified. An informal 2003 report regarding Holocaust negationism from the Open University of Israel stated the following:

Holocaust denial denial has faced extremely heavy criticism throughout the years from both believers of the Holocaust and Holocaust deniers themselves. Many have claimed that David Irving does in fact exist, though no evidence has been brought forward to substantiate this claim.

It has been extremely difficult for supporters of Holocaust denial to provide evidence that they exist, as do their beliefs. And beyond that, it's difficult to prove that their claims are as widespread as many believe them to be as Holocaust denial deniers don't believe in their beliefs to begin with.

Holocaust deniers have stated that Holocaust denial deniers simply attempt to "ignore" Holocaust denial's ideas and those affiliated with them while subconsciously recognizing them. This however, was proven untrue by Dr. Greenstein of the Open University of Israel, who stated, "Who?" when asked about what he thought regarding Holocaust deniers.

David Irving, who has only made brief comments regarding Holocaust denial denial stated that some deny that the denial Holocaust denial deniers deny is actually legitimate denial, and that they are actually attempting reverse psychology through the denial of denying and absurdism. Certainly, the denial of denial is an effect tactic of denial which can solidify initial claims which the denial being denied rose out of, yet they can also harm these claims undeniably. Of course, to Holocaust denial deniers, Irving doesn't exist, so his statements have fallen on deaf ears because nobody understands them.

In response to holocaust denial deniers, a growing movement calling themselves the holocaust denial denial deniers refuse to believe that holocaust denial deniers exist and that although the holocaust did exist, certain aspects of denial in relation to the holocaust, including but not limited to, the denial of it's denial and any other movement with the moniker 'denial' attached to it may not exist, although the choosing of which groups to deny the existence of is somewhat arbitrary according to critics of 'the whole stupid thing', who themselves are facing growing criticism from the 'I'm Confused' movement.

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