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Talmud – Metapedia

Posted By on October 25, 2015

El Talmud (del hebreo ) es una obra que recoge las discusiones rabnicas sobre leyes judas, tradiciones, costumbres, leyendas e historias. El Talmud se caracteriza por preservar la multiplicidad de opiniones a travs de un estilo de escritura asociativo, mayormente en forma de preguntas, producto de un proceso de escritura grupal a veces contradictorio.

El judasmo considera al Talmud la tradicin oral, mientras que la Tor (el Pentateuco) es considerada como tradicin escrita.

La mayor paradoja que puede hallarse en toda la historia de la humanidad, es la de encontrar un pueblo que fuese el elegido y seguidamente el vomitado por Dios; que no es otro ms que el judo. En su continuo deambular por la vida, aferrado a sus tradiciones como ningn otro, va transmitiendo de padres a hijos sus creencias religiosas y sociales de forma que, a travs de los siglos, el judasmo arrastra a una casta indomable, atribuyndose a s misma la condicin de casta superior, instruyndose en que el judo es el nico Dios viviente en la tierra, el Adam Kadmn, el hombre celeste; todos los dems han sido puestos en la tierra para servir al hebreo.

Predicando entre s un odio espantoso contra todos los dems pueblos, a los que azuza como a perros a la pelea, y adoctrinndose entre ellos con la terrible idea de que, "aun al mejor de entre los goim (los no judos), se les debe exterminar."

El porqu y cmo viene ocurriendo todo esto, se puede explicar con razones sencillas y comprensibles que no hay porqu ocultar. En primer lugar, porque los hebreos tienen un espritu demonaco, "tiene por padre al diablo que es el padre de toda mentira, y slo quieren hacer las cosas de su padre"; en segundo lugar, porque estn sometidos entre ellos, a una frrea disciplina a travs de los Kahales (Consejos nacionales, regionales y locales) y de los rabinos; en tercer lugar, porque tienen un Cdigo sagrado y secreto al que no puede sustraerse ningn judo, y rige desde fechas inmemoriales; y, por ltimo, porque todos estn sujetos a pagar un tributo econmico al Kahal al margen de los otros impuestos, lo que convierte al judasmo en la secta mejor organizada, pagada y sostenida del mundo entero.

Pero ahora no vamos a hacer ms que una breve referencia a la vasta obra del Talmud, pues no se trata realmente de un libro sino de una coleccin de 63; y basndonos en trabajos hechos por varios escritores, escasos sobre el tema, tratamos ahora de darlo a conocer en Espaa, que ha sido y sigue siendo la cuna del criptojudasmo, como reconoce el eminente historiador judo contemporneo Cecil Roth, en su Historia de los marranos. Esta obrita aunque es pequea, es de una labor ardua y paciente.

Hay que resaltar de entrada que El Talmud se acepta y respeta con veneracin por los judos del mundo entero, particularmente por todos los ortodoxos, que son la inmensa mayora.

Se trata de una obra elaborada exclusivamente por rabinos, por aquellos considerados como los ms sabios entre ellos, y actualmente est de tal forma tan impuesto entre la judera, que ya cualquier rabino, aisladamente, es incapaz de formular la menor crtica sobre su contenido. Ninguno puede alzar su voz contra l, slo el Gran Rabinato reunido podr ir lenta y ocasionalmente corrigiendo aquellos aspectos que ms repugnen a las mentes de los dems rabinos.

De las dos partes de que consta El Talmud: La Misn y La Guemar, quiz sea la primera la parte principal de todo l. As como la Ley Moiss, es considerada la primera Ley o Ley fundamental; la Misn es como una Ley ordinaria, y La Guemer, como el Reglamento que la desarrolla y complementa. Pero ninguna de estas dos puede ser vulnerada por ningn israelita. La Ley de Moiss s.

Y creemos sinceramente, que cuando no se conoce bien una materia, lo primero y ms juicioso es informarse antes de afirmar o entrar en discusin sobre ella, porque esto es ms propio de irresponsables. Las pginas que siguen no pretenden otra cosa. Slo satisfacer a alguien que sienta un sano inters por saber lo que es el Talmud y lo que ensea, y ya nos damos por satisfechos. Y cualesquiera que sean las criticas que produzca, an las opiniones ms encontradas, ser la recompensa a este pequeo trabajo.

Y rematemos ya esta introduccin con una tradicional oracin que durante siglos se vino repitiendo en la liturgia de cada Viernes Santo, desde el Papa de Roma hasta el ltimo pastor de almas, que aunque qued excluida de dicha liturgia por el Concilio Vaticano II, casi al mismo tiempo que Pablo VI reconoca pblicamente que el humo de satans haba penetrado en la Iglesia de Cristo, y el comn de la curia romana admita que algn diablo se paseaba vestido de prpura por la ciudad del Vaticano; no por ello hemos de entender que est prohibida, pues a diario se pide a Dios por toda clase de autoridades, instituciones, pecadores, y, por qu no por los judos.

La oracin reza as:

"Oremos tambin por los prfidos judos para que Dios quite el velo de sus corazones, a fin de que reconozcan con nosotros a Jesucristo Nuestro Seor.

Omnipotente y sempiterno Dios, que no excluyes de Tu Misericordia ni an a los prfidos judos: oye los ruegos que te dirigimos por la ceguedad de aquel pueblo, para que reconociendo la luz de Tu verdad, que es Jesucristo, salgan de sus tinieblas. Por el mismo Dios y Seor Nuestro."

Penetrad en las moradas de aquel pueblo, y veris la miseria espantosa que lo aflige. Hallaris a los padres haciendo leer a sus hijos un libro misterioso que a su vez lo harn tambin leer los hijos a sus hijos.

Chateaubriand

Lo cierto es que, aunque los judos no exhiben el Talmud, o conjunto de libros que lo integran, ms bien lo ocultan, es considerado por ellos como una ley propia y superior, y su 'existencia es tan real como el crimen ritual mismo. Y el Talmud no es otra cosa ms que un conjunto de disposiciones y reglas de conducta, de muy obligado y severo cumplimiento para el judo, en donde lo religioso no es materia nica, y ms bien seundaria; en donde todo est en abierta contradiccin con la moral cristiana, y en donde todo aparece escrito y con la suficiente claridad, acerca de la consideracin y el posible asesinato de los goim, los no judos.[1]

Basta esta sola cita del Talmud para formar criterio y emitir un juicio ponderado:

Slo el judo es humano, todos los dems no judos son animales. Son bestias con forma humana. Cualquier cosa es permitida que est en contra de ellos. El judo puede mentirles, trampearlos y robarlos. Puede violarlos y asesinarlos.

Pudiendo comprobarse que principios semejantes se reiteran en varios libros del Talmud, como veremos ms adelante [ii].[2]

Y esto, aunque parezca inverosmil, es real y est escrito, y lo escrito, escrito est. Quod scripsi, scripsi; verba volant, scripta manent.

Por consiguiente, el Talmud resulta ser un amplio texto escrito punible por si mismo en muchsimas de sus partes, ya que su contenido ha desbordado la mente humana, el mbito de la intencionalidad o de los malos pensamientos, traspasando lo probable y cayendo dentro de lo comprobable o verificable. Ello aparte las muchas frases injuriosas contra otras religiones, particularmente las cristianas y musulmana, sin que las palabras ni el espritu con que se utilizan permitan tampoco la menor duda acerca de la intencin injuriosa, (quando verba sunt per se injuriosa, animus injuriandi praesumitur).

Hemos de continuar, pues, adelante, con el examen del nico cdigo sagrado de los judos, antes de sentar que su reprobable contenido es un hecho inconcuso; que est en abierta contradiccin con la ley mosaica, en la que dicen que se inspira, as como con el Antiguo Testamento, y por descontado contra el Nuevo, porque ni siquiera lo admite, y por consiguiente, en pugna con el alegato aducido por los defensores de Israel, de que sus leyes no prescriben la efusin de sangre. Por el contrario, el Talmud preconiza el crimen y lo justifica.

Parece necesario, por consiguiente, hacer una referencia mucho ms amplia al Talmud, para saber de l y averiguar, sin lugar a dudas, la opinin que a travs del mismo tienen los judos sobre los no judos, y el comportamiento a que les compele a todos los israelitas en general, y a los sionistas en particular.

Digamos de entrada que el Talmud es una voz hebrea derivada a su vez de lamud, que significa enseanza, y recoge, por escrito, la tradicin oral juda sobre diversas materias: religiosas, sociales, e incluso polticas y de medicina. Por Talmud, se conoce, pues, una vasta compilacin de los preceptos enseados por los rabinos ms autorizados o maestros de la ley, (khakhams o doctores), sobre varias materias, recogiendo y explicando completamente toda la ciencia y enseanza del pueblo judo, ya milenaria; y que, los israelitas, vienen observando tan rigurosamente, si no ms, que la propia ley de Moiss o Pentatuco.

Los exgetas concuerdan en considerar a Moiss como el autor del Pentatuco, esto es, de los cinco primeros libros del Antiguo Testamento (Gnesis, xodo, Levtico, Nmeros y Deuteronomio), que si no lleg a redactarse todo por l completamente, interviniendo otros, dadas ciertas diferencias que se sealan, particularmente de estilo y las varias denominaciones que se le dan a Dios, al menos 33 nombres diferentes, si se hizo bajo su direccin. Como tambin se acepta generalmente que Moiss utiliz escritos ya anteriores a l, as como cierta tradicin oral. Y dada la pretendida inspiracin del Talmud en la ley mosaica, y basndose en ello, surgen diferencias, toda vez que algunos escritores -incluidos rabinos-, sostienen que los preceptos rabnicos -o talmdicos- proceden de Moiss, mientras que otros le atribuyen una mayor antigedad, como el alemn J. Streicher, para quien las leyes talmdicas provienen de hace ms de 3.000 aos, y -dice-, son tan vlidas hoy como lo fueron entonces.

El caso es que, los israelitas, quienes llaman al Pentatuco simplemente: La Ley o Tor, le dan ms valor a las interpretaciones talmdicas que a todo el Antiguo Testamento, incluido, por supuesto, el Pentatuco, al que estiman mucho menos. Es decir, el valor de la Ley (mosaica) es inferior al del Talmud.

Para sostener esto ltimo, domina una corriente rabnica segn la cual, argumentan que, Moiss, al subir al monte Sina para recibir del mismo Dios la ley escrita sobre las doce tablas de piedra con los mandamientos, tambin recibi las interpretaciones de la misma, o sea, la ley oral; pues de otra manera no necesitaba permanecer tanto tiempo en el monte, por cuanto Dios le pudo haber entregado la ley escrita en un solo da. Y tratan de apoyar esta tesis recurriendo al xodo, (cap. 24, 12), en donde se refiere el mandato de Dios a Moiss:

"Dijo Yav a Moiss: Sube a lo alto del monte en donde estoy y detente all. Yo te dar unas tablas de piedra con la ley y los mandamientos que tengo escritos en ellas, a fin de que los ensees al pueblo."

Los doctores de la ley -rabnicos- interpretan que en este pasaje bblico, las palabras tablas de piedra significan los diez mandamientos; que la ley significa el Pentatuco; los mandamientos significa la "Misn; que tengo escritos en ellas, los profetas y los hagigrafos; y a fin de que los ensees al pueblo, la "Guemar". Y as consta en el libro llamado "Berakhoth", el primero del Talmud.

Hay que distinguir, por lo tanto, entre tradicin oral y tradicin escrita. Es decir, tradicin bblica anterior y posterior a Moiss. La tradicin oral de los preceptos talmdicos, vinieron transmitindose mezclados con los de la Cbala entre los judos. Cbala, etimolgicamente en hebreo significa eso: tradicin.

Las diferencias que se sealan entre Talmud y Cbala, son las de que, mientras los preceptos talmdicos son dados para el conocimiento y dominio del comn de los judos, con carcter secreto para todos los dems, y sin perjuicio de que sus interpretaciones queden reservadas para los doctores de la ley; la doctrina cabalstica fue depositada en una minora juda, elitista, y su enseanza es dirigida exclusivamente a personas seleccionadas entre estos mismos, generalmente rabinos. La enseanza talmdica es exotrica; la cabalstica, totalmente esotrica u oculta. Y mientras, las enseanzas talmdicas son de inspiracin monotesta con marcado acento egosta, basadas en el monotesmo de la misma ley mosaica, la Cbala es netamente pantesta, basada en las costumbres de Caldea, Egipto y otros pueblos antiguos, que adoraban a los dolos e incluso a los diez principales demonios, practicaban la magia, la cartomancia y otras ciencias ocultistas o supersticiosas, y desde luego ofrendaban nios a los dioses.

Lo que s se puede afirmar igualmente y sin el menor temor a errar, es que los dogmas filosficos y rituales de la Cbala, se fueron transmitiendo hasta nuestros das a travs de la masonera, la que los mantiene igual que hace siglos. Ha de hacerse notar que la masonera, tal como la conocemos actualmente, aflor en el ao 1717 en Inglaterra, mas, es muy anterior, puesto que naci de una secta secreta fundada por nueve judos en el ao 43 despus de Cristo, bautizada con el nombre de La Fuerza Misteriosa, con dos propsitos principales: El primero, combatir a los nazarenos de creciente expansin, y contrariar sus predicaciones. Y el segundo, conservar la influencia poltica israelita.

En medio del confusionismo existente, o que pretende crearse, sobre el origen de la masonera, creemos que es decisivo lo que al respecto dio a conocer el judo brasileo de procedencia rusa, Jorge Samuel Laurant, bajo el titulo: La Disipacin de las Tinieblas o el Origen de la Masonera. Este Laurant, descendiente de uno de los nueve judos fundadores de la secta, fue el ltimo heredero y depositario de esta historia familiar, la cual vino recogindose por sus antepasados con anotaciones sobre uno de los mismos documentos originales de la fundacin, y fue publicada por primera vez a finales del siglo XIX, en francs, despus vertida al rabe y turco, por el libans ortodoxo Awad Khoury, con la mediacin del entonces presidente de la Repblica de Brasil, Doctor Prudente Jos de Moraes Barros (1841 - 1902), de quien Khoury era el "Encargado de Negocios privados de S.E. o prsidente da Repblica dos Estados Unidos do Brazil"; y ms recientemente traducida al espaol por Ivan Zodca, en la Argentina en 1962.[3]

Los nombres de los otros herederos o depositarios de aquel pacto secreto, de los ochos restantes fundadores, todava se desconoce.

El bisabuelo de dicho Laurant, que ya se haba convertido al cristianismo protestante por influencia de su esposa, y decidido a desvelar este misterio, fue asesinado, sin que posteriormente pudiese descubrirse jams al autor o autores. Resulta curioso leer en tal libro, lo que dej escrito un judo que lleg a alcanzar la ms alta graduacin masnica: "Sin embargo, el esclavo conoce a su amo, pero nosotros, en cambio, no conocemos a quien nos ordena, y le obedecemos ciegamente".

Monseor Len Meurin, jesuita, arzobispo de Port Louis en Madagascar, afirma en su obra Filosofa de la Masonera: "La doctrina cabalstica no es en el fondo ms que el paganismo en forma rabnica; y la doctrina masnica, esencialmente cabalstica, no es otra cosa que el antiguo paganismo reavivado, oculto bajo una capa rabnica y puesto al servicio de la nacin juda". Ms adelante, tambin emite este juicio: "La doctrina del Talmud es para el judo la teologa moral, como la Cbala es la teologa dogmtica". Y en otro lugar an vuelve con la siguiente observacin: "Examinemos las doctrinas y la alta direccin de la Orden, y en todas partes encontraremos a los judos. Los emblemas y enseanzas de las logias muestran, sin lugar a dudas, que la Cbala es la doctrina, el alma, la base y la fuerza oculta de la masonera".[4]

Nicols Serra y Caussa, escribe tambin a este respecto en su obra El Judasmo y la Masonera: "El inventor, fundador o introductor del sistema masnico, si no fue judo por la circuncisin, tan judo era de corazn como los mejores circuncidados; pues la masonera respira judasmo por los cuatro costados".

Luego cita Nicols Serra la opinin de un judo, de Jos Lehmann, despus sacerdote catlico, recogindole estas palabras sobre el particular: "El origen de la francmasonera debe atribuirse al judasmo; no ciertamente al judasmo en pleno, pero, por lo menos a un judasmo pervertido".

El historiador judo francs Bernard Lazare, escribi a finales del S. XIX: "Es evidente que slo hubo judos, y judos cabalistas, en la cuna de la masonera".

Por su parte, el rabino Isaac Wise escribi en 1855: "La masonera es una institucin juda, cuya historia, grados, cargos, seales y explicaciones, son de carcter judo desde el principio hasta el fin".

El filsofo alemn Fischer anot en 1848 esta otra observacin: "La gran mayora de la orden masnica no admite al cristianismo, sino que lo combate a punta de cuchillo; y la prueba de ello la tenemos en la admisin de todos los judos en las logias".

Otra perspectiva digna de tenerse en cuenta sobre la influencia juda en la masonera, es la que hace el ex masn M. J. Doinel, quien despus de haber militado en el Gran Oriente de Francia, y ya convertido al cristianismo, sienta lo siguiente: "Los masones se lamentan de la dominacin que los judos ejercen en las logias, en los Grandes Orientes, en todos los 'puntos del tringulo', en todas las naciones, en toda la extensin de la tierra. Su tirana se impone en el terreno poltico y financiero. Desde la Revolucin Francesa han invadido las logias y actualmente la invasin es total. As como la masonera es un Estado dentro del Estado, as los judos forman una masonera dentro de la masonera. El espritu judo reina en los 'talleres' con la metafsica de Lucifer, y gua la accin masnica, totalmente dirigida contra la Iglesia Catlica, contra su jefe visible, el Papa, y contra su jefe invisible, Jesucristo; repitiendo el grito deicida: Crucifcalo! La Sinagoga en el pensamiento de Satans tiene una parte preponderante, inmensa. Satans cuenta con los judos para gobernar la masonera, como cuenta con la masonera para destruir a la Iglesia".

Pero la mejor caricatura de estos ilusos y siervos soadores, quizs la haya trazado el judo hngaro Teodoro Herzl, famoso por ser el padre de la moderna doctrina sionista, escritor y periodista, quien convoc y presidi el primer congreso sionista celebrado en Basilea en cuya ocasin afirm: "Las logias masnicas establecidas en todo el mundo se prestarn a ayudarnos en lograr nuestra independencia. Es que aquellos cerdos, de los masones no judos, no comprendern jams el objeto final de la masonera".

Otro importante personaje de la cabalstica esotrica hebrea, ni financiero ni hombre pblico, el judo francs Saint-Yves d'Alveydre (1849-1909), el terico y maestro, formulador de la llamada doctrina de la Sinarqua, antecedente inmediato de la sionista, y por consiguiente de las lneas maestras del futuro Gobierno Mundial, no oculta su criterio sobre aquellos ilusos, escribiendo en uno de sus libros (Misin de los Judos, en 1884): "Si se dejara en manos de masones y papanatas el plan arquitectural y su ejecucin, jams se levantara el monumento".[5]

Pudiramos aportar otros muchos criterios autorizados, pero sobre este extremo, no vamos a insistir ms puesto que no es nuestro propsito hacer aqu un examen de la masonera ni mucho menos de los crmenes de la masonera. Baste ahora hacer la observacin, para concluir, de no difcil comprobacin, de que ni la masonera en su conjunto, ni un solo masn siquiera ocasionalmente, al menos durante su militancia, haya hecho o dicho lo ms mnimo que pudiese daar o simplemente molestar a los judos o a su poltica imperialista. Por el contrario, santifican cualquier atrocidad juda, como los brutales y sucios asesinatos de palestinos que se suceden mes tras mes, actitud que incluso encuentra eco en la misma ONU, con su visible tolerancia, no pasando de las frmulas de consuelo y condena, cuando de crmenes y ocupaciones de territorios ajenos, por los judos se trata.

Se le achaca a la ONU el ser una institucin de inspiracin juda, pero al menos, por lo que se ve, es la caja de resonancia del imperialismo sionista, normalmente a travs del norteamericano, o mejor, del angloamericano, que se limita a pedir "mayor moderacin" ante los excesos sionistas, o veta propuestas que ponen claramente de manifiesto que, en tal Organizacin, la igualdad, democracia y justicia, no tienen el mismo significado para todas las naciones integrantes, como tampoco para los judos o medio judos, unidos por los mismos lazos y sentimientos sionistas.[6]

Tambin hay que decir que, la masonera siempre fue tanto de la mano del capitalismo como de su secretismo. Y aun del comunismo, salvo en aquellos pases en donde ste queda impuesto, porque entonces la masonera comienza a ser cercenada. Consumada la traicin ya no es menester el traidor! Vase si no el ejemplo de Rusia durante los ltimos 70 aos, en donde la masonera ha estado totalmente prohibida.

Por otra parte, en relacin con las guerras y su explotacin, veamos lo que opina Henry Ford, el famoso industrial norteamericano inventor del automvil que lleva su nombre, y escritor, comentando en uno de sus artculos periodsticos publicado en el Daily Mail, de 21-9-1923 (luego recogidos en su libro El judo internacional): "No necesitamos la Liga de Naciones para poner fin a la guerra. Poned bajo control a los cincuenta financieros judos ms ricos, que promueven guerras para su nico provecho, y las guerras cesarn"[7]

Por ltimo, hagamos notar sobre este punto que, en el acta de la sesin del 'convento' (asamblea), del Gran Oriente Francs celebrado en 1929, se hizo constar esta advertencia:

"Nuestra Orden no puede conservar su fuerza y valor ms que manteniendo su carcter secreto. El da en que perdamos nuestro carcter especfico en lo referente a nuestra discrecin y secreto, nuestra accin en el pas habr finalizado".

Y, para finalizar, digamos que el 20 de febrero de 1959, la Asamblea Plenaria de Cardenales, Arzobispos y Obispos de Argentina, publicaba una declaracin colectiva recordando la condena formal de la masonera por los Papas, desde Clemente XII a Po X, y subrayando que la francmasonera y el comunismo persiguen el mismo objetivo, diciendo:

"Para llegar a sus fines, la Franc-Masonera se sirve de la alta finanza, de la alta poltica y de la prensa mundial; el marxismo, por su parte, se sirve de la revolucin social y econmica contra la patria, la familia, la propiedad, la moral y la religin".

Volvamos a la tradicin talmdica y cabalstica. El hecho es que tanto a una historia como a la otra, se pretende rodearlas de misterio e incluso ocultarlas. Una corriente rabnica sostiene que Moiss transmiti la ley oral a Josas; Josas a su vez la transmiti a los setenta ancianos (o sabios); estos ancianos a los profetas, y los profetas a la Gran Sinagoga; posteriormente pas en forma sucesiva a ciertos rabinos, hasta que ya no fue posible retenerla por ms tiempo oralmente.

Pero aparte estas especulaciones dogmticas aportadas por los propios judos, lo cierto es que unos y otros preceptos, talmdicos y cabalsticos, fueron siendo recogidos por escrito casi al mismo tiempo. Primero se recoge la doctrina cabalstica, por el filsofo Filn el Judo (13 a.C. - 54 d.C.), de Alejandra; y poco despus la talmdica por el rabino Jehud, desde finales del siglo II y principios del III, entre el ao 190 y el 220, aunque ya antes de Cristo existan en Palestina colegios que enseaban Talmud. Alguno afirma que empez a redactarse despus de la destruccin de Jerusaln.

El primero que le dio forma al Talmud, fue por consiguiente, el rabino Jehud o Yehud ha Nas[8], pero no totalmente a todo l, sino a la primera parte del mismo, conocida por la Misn, segunda ley o ley repetida, tambin as llamada porque es un comentario a la primera ley o ley de Moiss. Jehud llev a cabo una recopilacin de todo cuanto haba escrito sobre la materia, anterior a l, as como recensin de lo legado oralmente, ordenndolo y dndole forma, y dividindolo en seis partes o cdigos, cada cdigo en libros, y, los libros en captulos.

Estas seis partes o cdigos de la Misn -seguimos aqu a Pranaitis-, son las siguientes:[9]

I. ZERAIM: Sobre la agricultura: semillas, frutas, hierbas, rboles, y uso de las frutas. Contiene once libros.[10]

II. MOED: Sobre las fiestas: tiempo en que deben comenzar y finalizar, y cmo celebrar tanto el sabat como las otras festividades. Contiene doce libros.[11]

III. NASCHIM o Nasim: Trata del matrimonio, las mujeres, repudio de las esposas, sus deberes, relaciones matrimoniales, y enfermedades. Consta de siete libros.[12]

IV. NEZIKIN: Sobre Derecho penal y civil, penalidades e indemnizaciones. Consta de diez libros.[13]

V. KODASCHIM: Concerniente al Derecho religioso o sagrado, los sacrificios y los ritos. Once libros.[14]

VI. TOHOROTH: Concerniente a las purificaciones e higiene. Trata sobre la suciedad y purificacin de las embarcaciones, ropa de cama y otras cosas. Consta de doce libros.[15]

El talmud no es, pues, un slo libro como parecen dar a entender algunos escritores que lo citan, sino por el contrario, un extenso cuerpo de obra que abarca 63 libros en total, como acabamos de ver, distribuidos en 613 captulos.[16] Casi tantos como la Biblia. Y consta de dos grandes partes: la Misn, la primera parte, a que acabamos de referirnos; y la Guemar, que es una glosa a la anterior, es decir, un comentario del comentario. En realidad, estas dos partes van en cada libro; la segunda a continuacin de la primera, o incluso intercalada con ella.

Redactada la Misn, sta fue siendo objeto de estudio y enseanza, particularmente entre los siglos II y V, por las dos escuelas o academias rabnicas ms importantes de aquel entonces, la palestina o de Jerusaln y la babilnica [xvii].[17] Ese fue el motivo por el que, sucesivamente, fue recibiendo ms aadidos y ulteriores comentarios, que, reunidos, vinieron a constituir la segunda parte o Guemar.

Cada escuela sigui sus propios mtodos, y as, dieron nacimiento a un Guemar doble, que, posteriormente, tras distintas interpretaciones y polmicas, concluy con dos redacciones distintas. La versin del Guemar de Jerusaln, se debe principalmente al rabino Jochanan, quien presidi la sinagoga de Jerusaln durante ocho aos y concluy sus trabajos en el ao 230 d.C. La versin babilnica, sin embargo, se fue compilando por distintos rabinos y pocas. El rabino Aschi trabaj en la tarea de su redaccin durante sesenta aos -se dice-, desde el 327. La sigui posteriormente el rabino Maremar, desde el ao 427, y la complet el rabino Ravina alrededor del ao 500. Se acepta generalmente, que la versin de Jerusaln, por su brevedad y vaguedad, es ms rehusada por los judos, en cambio la babilnica, fue tenida siempre en ms estima por los judos de todas las pocas.

La Guemar, por consiguiente, no es ms que una suma de comentarios sobre la Misn. Si bien, algunos preceptos de la Misn no fueron examinados, ya que su explicacin se dej para la venida de Elas y del Mesas. Pero, por lo de pronto, la Guemar, no solamente entr a formar parte del Talmud, sino que lleg a ms, lleg a alcanzar una ms alta consideracin que la Misn y la propia Tor o Ley mosaica.

Es el Talmud el que viene a avalar esta ltima afirmacin. En el tratado Sopherim (25, 7, fol. 13 b), se sienta esta curiosidad: "La Sagrada Escritura se asemeja al agua, la Misn al vino, y la Guemar al vino aromtico".

Ya en dos libros anteriores del Nezikin -IV parte o cdigo-, se hace una valoracin sobre este particular. En el libro Baba Metsia (fol. 33 a) se dice al respecto: "Aquellos que se dedican a leer la Biblia ejercitan una determinada virtud, pero no mucha; aquellos que estudian la Misn ejercitan una virtud por la que sern premiados; pero, no obstante, aquellos que se dedican a estudiar la Guemar ejercitan la ms grande de las virtudes".

Y en el tratado Sanhedrn (10, 3, fol. 88 b), se rebaja igualmente a un segundo plano el valor de la Ley o Tor, es decir, el Pentatuco, la misma Biblia, al establecer que:

"Aquel que quebranta las palabras de los escribas peca ms gravemente que aquellos transgresores de las palabras de la Ley". Asimismo, esto aparece sentado en el libro Erubhin (2 libro del II cdigo o Moed): "Hijo mo, presta atencin a las palabras de los escribas antes que a las palabras de la Ley"

De donde se deduce claramente, por consiguiente, que lo inspirado tiene ms fuerza que la fuente inspiradora. Las palabras de los rabinos valen mucho ms que las Escrituras Sagradas. Y de aqu se desprende que, si los rabinos preconizan el crimen -adems de otras cualesquiera barbaridades-, en sus aberrantes interpretaciones del Pentatuco, no cabe duda de que sus enseanzas son las que valen y se imponen para todos los judos. Resulta deplorable aquel alegato de los defensores de Israel, de que sus leyes se inspiran en la ley mosaica, porque lo que realmente hacen es tergiversar y sobar sobre aquella ley segn mejor les convenga; como los buenos curtidores de pieles antes de rematar el curtido. Y desde luego el Talmud prescribe el delito como cosa normal frente a los goim (los no judos).

Hay que hacer la salvedad de que a los 63 libros del Talmud, a que ya hemos hecho referencia, se le han agregado cuatro breves tratados ms, por posteriores escritores, pero que no han sido incluidos en el Talmud corriente. Destacando Pranaitis, que casi todas las ediciones del Talmud tienen la misma cantidad de folios y la misma disposicin del texto; solamente vara el tipo de imprenta o formato, segn sea modelo grande o pequeo.

Como de todas formas, esta obra fue hacindose voluminosa y desordenada, los judos sintieron la necesidad de algo ms sencillo y manejable, lo que fue originando una nueva tendencia, no de compilacin sino de recopilacin o breve compendio, que empez a dar sus frutos a partir del siglo XI. El primero que lleg a publicar un Talmud breve, fue el rabino Isaac ben Jacob Alphassi, aunque no lleg a tener xito.

Pero segn Pranaitis, el primero en editar una obra bien ordenada sobre la Ley Juda, fue el rabino Moische ben Maimn, a quien los judos llamaban abreviadamente Rambam, o "El guila de la Sinagoga", y tambin rabino Iarchi o Raschi; ms conocido entre los cristianos por Maimnides, que fue el nombre que prevaleci. Un judo-espaol que naci en Crdoba en 1135, all estudi medicina y filosofa, y a travs de sus traducciones Europa conoci la cultura griega, a Platn y a Aristteles. Y muri exiliado en Egipto en 1204, malviviendo de la medicina.

Moiss Maimnides, escribi en rabe y hebreo sobre temas filosficos, mdicos y talmdicos. Sobre stos, redact primero unos comentarios al Talmud que public en un libro llamado Perusch, incluido en la Guemar. Posteriormente, en 1180, concluy su gran obra denominada Misn Tor (Repeticin de la Ley), tambin llamada Iad Chazakah (La Mano Fuerte), que es un compendio del Talmud, dividido en cuatro partes o volmenes con 14 libros en total. Incluy conceptos filosficos propios y nuevas leyes, motivo por el que fue excomulgado por su pueblo y condenado a muerte, y aunque no fue ejecutado s fue perseguido. Despus de Maimnides, el mundo judo qued dividi en dos bandos, el de sus seguidores y el de sus detractores. A pesar de ello, el valor de su obra fue en aumento. Tanto es as, que actualmente entre los judos circula como mxima, el aforismo:

"De Moiss a Moiss (Maimnides), no ha habido otro Moises".

Su grey no le ha abandonado. En 1935, con motivo de la conmemoracin del VIII centenario de su nacimiento y la fraternal colaboracin del masnico gobierno de la II Repblica espaola, en la sinagoga de Crdoba se descubri una lpida de mrmol blanco con la siguiente inscripcin:

Sin embargo, todo hay que decirlo, Maimnides, con toda su inteligencia y capacidad de trabajo, no fue sino una mente luciferina al igual que algunos otros eminentes de la judera. Guardan cierto parentesco con los demonios, quienes siendo creados espritus puros, nacidos ngeles, les perdi la ambicin y acabaron rebelndose contra el mismo Dios, pensando que podran ser tanto como l y, claro est, lo que alcanzaron fue la eterna condena, aunque el dao ya lo dejaron hecho. Ya veremos ms adelante cmo Maimnides interpreta el "no robars" o el "no matars": slo a judos, no a los dems, porque los otros no son personas sino animales, bestias. Sabrn esto los masones! Su egosmo le llev incluso a abjurar del mosasmo para abrazar el islamismo.

Con posterioridad a Maimnides, ya solamente merece la pena citar a dos rabinos en relacin con los trabajos del repetido Talmud, a Jacob ben Ascher y a Joseph Caro ben Efraim. Ascher, public en 1340 un compendio de la obra de Maimnides, expurgada de todo cuanto consider superfluo y personal, dividida en cuatro partes, que no alcanz el xito esperado.

Es obligado destacar al otro rabino, por su importancia, a Jos Caro (1488-1577), de Palestina, quien, siendo nio, juntamente con sus padres procedentes de Toledo, fue expulsado de Espaa en tiempos de los Reyes Catlicos. ste fue el que dio satisfaccin a la necesidad generalmente sentida, de un libro breve y sencillo para la inteligencia de todos los judos: su famoso Schulchan Arukh (La Mesa Preparada), que lleg hasta nuestros das y es actualmente considerada como la obra ms sagrada para los judos ortodoxos, su obligado Cdigo de Leyes.

El Schulchan Arukh no es ms que una condensacin del Talmud. Un Talmud abreviado, dividido en cuatro pequeos libros, y stos en pargrafos numerados. Es pues, el Cdigo imperante para los judos, salvo para una minora que no reconoce ms que la Ley mosaica, motivo por el cual unos pocos son sojuzgados por la mayora y condenados al ostracismo. Tanto es as, que tradicionalmente las comunidades judas conciertan un contrato con todo nuevo rabino, para conducir a la comunidad segn este Cdigo de Leyes, sin admitir discrepancias.[18]

Jos Caro con esta obra termin con las polmicas habidas entre los rabinos anteriores a l, aunque inicialmente tampoco dio plena satisfaccin a todos, ya que dividi a los judos orientales de los occidentales.

En lo que no hay unanimidad de criterio es en cuanto a la fecha de redaccin del Schulchan Arukh, y aun sobre su origen. A. Luzsenszky, quien tradujo el Talmud y el Schulchan Arukh al alemn, en la Introduccin a este ltimo seala al rab Ascher como el compilador originario, pero atribuyndole al rab Jos Caro la redaccin definitiva en el ao 1490, cuando en este ao, segn el Rvdo ruso Pranaitis, Caro solamente tena dos aos de edad, y, por otra parte, deba encontrarse todava en Espaa puesto que la expulsin de los judos tuvo lugar en 1492, o a partir de este ao. El profesor Pranaitis no cita fecha de redaccin de este libro, slo dice que utiliza la edicin de Venecia de 1594. Monniot afirma que fue escrito por el rab Josiel hacia 1576, en Palestina. Josiel debe ser el mismo Joseph (Caro), pero esta ltima fecha nos parece muy tarda por cuanto Caro ya tena 88 aos y falleca al siguiente. El judo Teodoro Reinach, dice simplemente que debi ser redactado a mediados del siglo XVI. Mas, no vamos aqu a entrar en ms detalles sobre este particular, no es una cuestin primordial.

Lo que si se debe resaltar respecto del Schulchan Arukh, en cuanto a su autor, es que el criterio dominante es unnime: su autor es Jos Caro, en lo que concuerdan los israelitas. En el Univers Isralite de 18 de octubre de 1912, escriben:

"El principal aflujo se produjo en 1492, despus de la expulsin de los judos de Espaa que buscaron refugio en el Este de Europa. Entre los que emigraron a Nicpoli estaba el rabino Ephraim Caro, de Toledo, cuyo hijo Joseph fue el jefe religioso de la comunidad, establecindose ms tarde en Safed: es el autor del Schulchan Arukh, que qued como cdigo del judasmo".

Sobre este libro sagrado, nos parece muy importante el decir tambin que, en un snodo israelita celebrado en Hungra en el ao 1866, los asistentes tomaron, entre otros, el siguiente acuerdo:

"Hay que negar pblicamente el Schulchan Arukh a los ojos de los no judos, pero en realidad, todo judo en todo pas est obligado a cumplir en todo momento estas leyes". Resolucin que fue suscrita por 94 rabinos, 182 abogados, 45 mdicos y 11.672 judos de distintos estamentos.[19]

Alguien podr preguntarse cmo llenar alguna laguna o aclarar algn precepto talmdico de difcil interpretacin. Pues bien, se puede decir al respecto que carecen de jurisprudencia pero no de pragmatismo, pues los rabinos lo hacen todo, para los judos son el alma y el sostn de Yav en la tierra, hacen y deshacen sin apelacin. Se puede traer aqu una cita del libro talmdico Horcoim, en el que sientan una regla de oro ante la necesidad de alguna interpretacin, que es del tono siguiente:

"Los rabinos ensean tambin, respecto al Talmud, que si se encuentra algo en un libro que salga del orden natural o que sobrepase nuestra inteligencia, se debe culpar a la debilidad del entendimiento humano, ya que al meditarlo profundamente, se observa que el Talmud no contiene ms que la pura verdad".

Ah queda una vez ms la reafirmacin de que los mandatos talmdicos son obligatorios, han de obedecerse ciegamente por los judos; y ya sabemos que estn en abierta contradiccin con la Biblia. En donde se inspiran es en su ancestral espritu de casta, jams superado por ningn otro grupo humano.

La existencia del Talmud ya no puede ser negada por nadie. Ya hemos dicho que lo escrito, escrito est. Pero se pretende poner en tela de juicio su permanente vigencia, su actualidad, aunque parezca en principio ser un intento ftil. Pues son ellos mismos los que nos muestran con frecuencia todo lo contrario.

Sobre este particular podemos traer aqu como prueba, una sentencia no muy lejana, divulgada en Espaa por la agencia Efe, con fecha 20.12.1979, diciendo que:

"El Tribunal rabnico de Haifa (Israel), ha condenado hoy a un marido a tener relaciones sexuales con su mujer.-La vctima es un profesor de enseanza media de 32 aos, cuya esposa se querell porque desde hace ocho meses no mantena relaciones sexuales con ella". Y aade que, "la decisin de los jueces rabnicos se ha basado en el Talmud (sic), que prescribe que los esposos han de tener relaciones sexuales continuadas, salvo el caso de fuerza mayor. La multa ha de ser pagada segn lo fijado por el Talmud".

En lo que yerra la nota de prensa, es en sealar que el Talmud fue redactado en el ao 600 antes de Jesucristo.

Aunque sea de pasada, hagamos la observacin de que la moral sexual israelita, en este punto, no anda muy lejos de la de sus hermanos en Abraham, los musulmanes; ambas muy distantes de la cristiana. A propsito de esta sentencia, creemos que los jueces, necesariamente tuvieron que tener a la vista, aparte otras consideraciones, el Libro IV del Schulchan Arukh, dedicado al Derecho matrimonial, a la mujer, sus enfermedades, dote, etc., en estos pargrafos numerados que vamos a ver, los que muestran su estancamiento en una moral primitiva, verdaderamente arcaica y discriminatoria para la mujer -todava se justifica la poligamia, el aborto, y la consideracin de mujer objeto-, y transcribimos seguidamente ya sin ms comentarios, dejndolo al criterio ajeno:

"1. A todo israelita le est permitido tener tantas mujeres simultneamente como pueda alimentar. Pero los sabios han recomendado mantener slo cuatro mujeres, para que por lo menos recaiga una vez sobre cada mujer un ayuntamiento carnal. Para la mujer el mandamiento de la procreacin no tiene fuerza obligatoria".

"6. Un kohen (sacerdote judo) no debe casarse con una divorciada, ramera o debilitada. Quin es una ramera? Cualquier mujer no juda, o tambin una juda que ha tenido relacin con alguien a quien no le estaba permitido casarse con ella".

"44, 8. Cuando un israelita se casa con una akum (no juda) o una esclava, entonces el casamiento es nulo, porque no son capaces de ser tomados en casamiento, e igualmente cuando un akum o esclavo se ha casado con una israelita".

(En el pargrafo 27, anterior, se dice que "slo es prostitucin, aun en el caso de previa conversin de la otra parte a la religin israelita").

See the original post:
Talmud - Metapedia

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Karanja Kibicho, the ministrys Principal Secretary, has said that not all...

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DIASPORA NEWS | Mwakilishi.com

Jews in New York City – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Posted By on October 24, 2015

The first Jewish settlement in what became the United States was in Dutch New Amsterdam, which is now known as New York City. Since then, Jews have settled in New York City in large numbers. As of 2014[update], there are 1.5 million Jews in New York City.

As of 2014[update], about 1,757,000 New York state residents, or about 9% of the residents of the state, were Jewish.[1]

The Census Bureau estimated the total NYC population at 8,336,697 in 2012; thus, assuming the figures in the table above are correct, Jews were 18.4% of the City's population in 2012. Other sources, like the source that estimated that there were just 972,000 Ashkenazim in New York City in 2002, put the number at much lower. There are approximately 1.5 million Jews (as of 2001) in the New York metropolitan area, making it the second largest Jewish community in the world, after the Tel Aviv Metropolitan Area in Israel (however, Tel Aviv proper has a smaller population of Jews than New York City proper, making New York City the largest community of Jews in the world). New York City's Jewish population is more than Chicago's, Philadelphia's, San Francisco's, and Washington, D.C.'s combined Jewish populations.[4]

The number of Jews in New York City soared throughout the beginning of the 20th century and reached a peak of 2 million in the 1950s, when Jews constituted one-quarter of the city's population. New York City's Jewish population then began to decline because of low fertility rates and migration to suburbs and other states, particularly California and Florida. A new wave of Ashkenazi and Bukharian Jewish immigrants from the former Soviet Union began arriving in the 1980s and 1990s. Sephardic Jews, including Syrian Jews and other Jews of non-European origin, have also lived in New York City since the late 19th century. Many Jews, including the newer immigrants, have settled in Queens, south Brooklyn, and the Bronx, where at present most live in middle-class neighborhoods. The number of Jews is especially high in Brooklyn, where 561,000 residentsone out of four inhabitantsis Jewish.[5][6] As of 2012[update], there are 1.1 million Jews in New York City.[7]Borough Park known for its large Orthodox Jewish population, had 27.9 births per 1,000 residents in 2015, making it the neighborhood with the city's highest birth rate.[8]

In 2002, an estimated 972,000 Ashkenazic Jews lived in New York City and constituted about 12% of the city's population. New York City is also home to the world headquarters of the Chabad, Bobover, and Satmar branches of Hasidism, and other traditional orthodox branches of Judaism. While three-quarters of New York Jews do not consider themselves religiously observant, the Orthodox community is rapidly growing due to the high birthrates of Hasidic Jews, while the numbers of Conservative and Reform Jews are declining.

Organizations such as The Agudath Israel of America, The Orthodox Union, Chabad and The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute have their headquarters in New York.

The first significant group of Jews to come to New York, then the colony New Amsterdam, came in September 1654 as refugees from Recife, Brazil. Portugal had just re-conquered what is now known of the Brazilian State of Pernambuco from the Netherlands, and the Sephardi Jews there promptly fled. Most went to Amsterdam, but 23 headed for New Amsterdam instead. They were greeted by some Ashkenazim who had preceded them by just a few weeks. Governor Peter Stuyvesant was at first unwilling to accept them but succumbed to pressure from the Dutch West India Companyitself pressed by Jewish stockholdersto let them remain. Nevertheless, he imposed numerous restrictions and taxes on his Jewish subjects. Eventually, many of these Jews left.[9]

When the British took the colony from the Dutch in 1664, the only Jewish name on the requisite oath of loyalty given to residents was Asser Levy. This is the only record of a Jewish presence at the time, until 1680 when some of Levy's relatives arrived from Amsterdam shortly before he died.[9]

The first synagogue, the Sephardi Congregation Shearith Israel, was established in 1682, but it did not get its own building until 1730. Over time, the synagogue became dominant in Jewish life, organizing social services and mandating affiliation for all New York Jews.[9] Even though by 1720 Ashkenazim outnumbered Sephardim,[10] the Sephardi customs were retained.[9]

An influx of German and Polish Jews followed the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The increasing number of Ashkenazim led to the founding of the city's second synagogue, B'nai Jeshurun, in 1825. Several others followed in rapid succession, including the first Polish one, Congregation Shaare Zedek, in 1839. In 1845, the first Reform temple, Congregation Emanu-El of New York opened.[11]

By this time numerous communal aid societies were formed. These were usually quite small, and a single synagogue might be associated with more than a few such organizations. Two of the most important of these merged in 1859 to form the Hebrew Benevolent and Orphan Asylum Society[11] (Jewish orphanages were constructed on 77th Street near 3rd Avenue and another in Brooklyn). In 1852 the "Jews' Hospital" (renamed in 1871 Mount Sinai Hospital), which would one day be considered one of the best in the country,[12] was established.[11]

The thirty five years beginning 1881 experienced the largest wave of immigration to the United States ever. Following the assassination of Alexander II of Russia, for which many blamed "the Jews",[13] there was a vast increase in anti-Jewish pogroms there possibly with the support of the government and numerous anti-Jewish laws were passed. The result was that over two million Jews emigrated to America,[14]:3645 more than a million of them to New York.[15]:1076

These immigrants tended to be young and relatively irreligious, and were generally skilled especially in the clothing industry,[16]:2534 which would soon dominate New York's economy,.[17] By the end of the nineteenth century, Jews "dominated related fields such as the fur trade."[16]:254

The German Jews, who were often wealthy by this time, did not much appreciate the eastern European arrivals, and moved to uptown Manhattan en masse, away from the Lower East Side where most of the immigrants settled.[14]:3702 Still, many of these immigrants worked in factories owned by the first class of Jews.[10]

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Jews in New York City - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Center for Jewish History Visit the Center

Posted By on October 24, 2015

Sunday, 11:00am - 5:00pm Monday and Wednesday, 9:30am - 8:00pm Tuesday and Thursday, 9:30am - 5:00pm Friday: 9:30am - 4:00pm.

* Free Gallery Spaces do not include the Yeshiva University Museum exhibits

Monday, Free 5:00pm - 8:00pm Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday 11:00am - 5:00pm Wednesday, 11:00am - 8:00pm (Free 5:00pm - 8:00pm) Friday, Free 11:00am - 2:30pm

Collections are available during the following open hours:*Sunday 11am - 4pm (YIVO Institute for Jewish Research Archives closed) ** Monday 9:30am - 7:30pm *** Tuesday - Thursday 9:30am - 5:30pm *** Friday 9:30am - 1:30pm (YIVO Institute for Jewish Research Archives closed)

* Monday-Thursday, last call for paging is 4:00pm. Friday, last call for paging is 12:00pm. ** Requests for Sunday usage must be received by 4:00pm on the preceding Thursday. *** YIVO Institute for Jewish Research archives are available until 5:00pm only.

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The Center for Jewish History is closed on Saturday, all major Jewish holidays, and all major national holidays.

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Center for Jewish History Visit the Center

Jewish History | Pathways

Posted By on October 24, 2015

Summary

At mention of the word "history," most people break out in a cold sweat. They remember back to high school where history was the memorization of names, dates, places and events -- necessary only for exams and then promptly forgotten afterwards.

The Crash Course in Jewish History is anything but. It makes history relevant interesting and dynamic. And it provides an overview and understanding of the central themes and events of 4,000 years of Jewish history.

The Jewish people are arguably the oldest surviving people on Earth, and because they have been spread out throughout the world, when we learn Jewish history, it's a great framework for world history, too.

Each of the 68 segments features a dynamic essay, plus a 3-minute video presentation. The essays can be read online, or printed in a beautiful PDF format.

This course also has interactive online testing. When you register, all your test results are stored in your personal online account, so you can track your progress as you study the material.

Benefits and features:

Do you want a solid grasp of Jewish history? Crash Course in Jewish History will get you there.

Rabbi Ken Spiro

Rabbi Spiro is a Senior Lecturer and Researcher for Aish HaTorah's Discovery Seminar, known for his ability to explain deep concepts with wit and clarity. In addition, he is a licensed tour guide from the Israel Ministry of Tourism. Rabbi Spiro graduated from Vassar College with a BA in Russian Language and Literature, and did graduate studies at the Pushkin Institute in Moscow. He has an MA in History from the Vermont College of Norwich University, and Rabbinic Ordination from Yeshivat Aish HaTorah in Jerusalem. He has appeared on numerous radio and television programs, and is the author of WorldPerfect - The Jewish Impact on Civilization. Rabbi Spiro lives in Israel with his wife and five children.

PART I: A MAN A FAMILY A NATION

PART II: LAND OF MILK AND HONEY

PART III: ADRIFT AMID THE EMPIRES

PART IV: IN EXILE

PART V: THE LONG ROAD HOME

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Jewish History | Pathways

Jewish History | History

Posted By on October 24, 2015

The Department of History offers graduate programs in early modern and modern Jewish history leading to both the MA and Ph.D. degrees. Graduate students participate in reading seminars in their major and minor fields within Jewish history, and in thematic seminars.

New Synagogue in London, 1850, from "The Jewish World" (Kedourie, Harrison House, New York 1979)

Graduate students benefit from the enormous breadth of expertise and interests of the Ohio State history faculty, including specialists in the ancient near east, medieval Islam, twentieth century Jewish intellectual life, Nazi science and U.S.-Israeli diplomatic relations. In addition, Jewish history faculty and students are part of the Melton Center for Jewish Studies, one of the largest and most diverse Jewish studies programs in the country. The Melton Center also offers funding for graduate students over and above what is available through the Department of History.

Professor Emeritus Alan Beyerchen teaches and researches in nineteenth and twentieth century German history. His graduate students have completed dissertations on a variety of topics in cultural, socio-economic and political history. He is personally interested in cultural history. His research focuses on the relationships among science, technology, and modern values as reflected in the economic and political developments of nineteenth- and twentieth-century Germany.

Professor Emeritus Carole Fink Professor Fink has been a section editor of the AHA Guide to Historical Literature as well as of Peace/Mir: An Anthology of Historical Perspectives to War. She teaches courses in 19th and 20th century European international history, Europe Since 1945, and European Historiography. Her current research is on German Ostpolitik after 1966 and German-Israeli relations in the 1960s as well as on refugee problems during the 1920s and 1930s.

Professor Daniel Frank (NELC) is Coordinator of OSU's Hebrew language program. Dr. Frank's primary field of research is the history, literature, and doctrines of the Karaites, an ancient Jewish sect which does not accept the authority of the Talmud. His other areas of expertise include medieval Jewish history, literature, and culture especially Judeo-Arabic literature and biblical exegesis.

Professor Matt Goldish specializes in early modern Jewish history, messianism and Sephardic studies. Professor Goldish has published Judaism in the Theology of Sir Issac Newton (Dordrecht: Kluwer-- International Archives of the History of Ideas, 1998), The Sabbatean Prophets (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004), and several edited collections, as well as articles and book reviews. Professor Goldish is active as an invited lecturer in various academic and community environments.

Professor Jane Hathaway is an expert on the Ottoman Empire before the 19th century, and more particularly Egypt and Yemen. She has published two books: The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt: The Rise of the Qazdaglis, and A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen, which won the 2005 Ohio Academy of History Outstanding Publication Award.

Professor Robin Judd teaches courses and seminars on modern Jewish history, German Jewry, gender studies and confessional conflict. Professor Judd has won several prestigious fellowships. She has presented conference papers in the United States, Europe, and Israel. Professor Judd is currently working on We Jews Who Feel Most German: Religion & Modern German Jewish Life 1043-1933.

Assistant Professor Alex Kayeresearches Jewish intellectual history and the study of Israel. His current research focuses on the legal philosophy of religious Zionists in the twentieth century, showing how they configured the relationship between state power and traditional Jewish law, often drawing on trends in European and American legal philosophy. His work contributes to the intellectual and cultural history of Judaism; explores the relationships among law, religion, and politics; and interrogates the distinction between the religious and the secular.

Professor Sam Meier (NELC) serves as adjunct professor of History, where he teaches the both the History of ancient Israel and History of the Second Commonwealth. Dr. Meier is the Coordinator of the Hebrew Program at The Ohio State University. He is presently engaged in research in the Deuteronomistic History and prophecy in ancient Israel. He has a courtesy appointment in the Department of History.

Painting by C.W. Eckersberg, 1818, from "The Jewish World" (Kedourie, Harrison House, New York 1979)

Algerian synagogue, 1830s, from "The Jewish World" (Kedourie, Harrison House, New York 1979)

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Jewish History | History

Jewish Timeline – a Brief History of the Jewish People in …

Posted By on October 24, 2015

Jewish History Genesis 3761 BCE

In the beginning God created the world and everything in it in six days. Man was created, only after everything else was ready, on the sixth day. Jewish years begin with the creation of the first man. The year 2012 CE corresponds to the Hebrew year 5772. Therefore Genesis, that is dated to the Hebrew year 0, is dated to the year 3761 BCE in the Gregorian Calendar.

On account of man's wickedness, God resolved to destroy all mankind and animals by a flood. For his righteousness, only Noah and his family were excepted together with pairs of every living species.

As mankind tried to reach the sky God scattered it abroad upon the face of all the earth. The place where this took place in was named Babel, meaning confusion in Hebrew, since there God confounded the language of the earth.

God appeared to Abraham with a promise of offspring and their subsequent inheritance of the Land of Israel - between the river of Egypt and the Euphrates.

The greatest trial of the patriarch's life came when God bade him offer up his only son as a burnt offering. Eventually, an angel of the Lord restrained him, once more delivering the prophecy that the patriarch's seed should be as the stars of the heaven, and as the sand which is upon the seashore, and that in them all the nations of the earth should be blessed.

When the famine grew severe in Canaan, Jacob sent his sons into Egypt to buy corn, Later he went to Egypt with his eleven sons and their children, numbering altogether sixty-six, Joseph meeting him in Goshen.

The departure, under the leadership of Moses, of the Israelites from the land of Egypt. The Torah was given shortly after at Mount Sinai, by God revealing to all the Israelites, and not to a single prophet, as the case usually is in other religions.

David, desired to build a temple for God, but was not permitted to do so because he was engaged in wars. His son, King Solomon, built the First Temple.

King Solomon's death led to the division of the kingdom into two: Judah and Israel (also named Samaria). The division led to political and spiritual deterioration. Wars and assimilation became common.

Around two hundred years after the division of the kingdom, the Assyrian Empire conquered the kingdom of Israel. The remaining population of the ten tribes of Israel either fled to Judah or were exiled to Assyria.

Babylonian conquest brings terrible devastation, destruction and exile. Those who remain are poor and incompetent. The day the Temple was burned, Tisha B'Av, was set to be a fast day.

Assassination of Gedalia, governor of Palestine. The Babylonian response was destructive. A fast day was set to commemorate the terrible event and its consequences.

Cyrus of Persia allows Jews to return to Eretz Yisrael. About 50,000 return led by Zerubbabel. Ezra and Nehemiah lead other Alyia waves and spiritual revival.

The event, told in the Book of Esther, is the source of Fast of Esther Day and Purim, celebrated since then on the fourteenth of Adar (and Shushan Purim on the 15th of Adar).

The Jews that returned to Zion finally succeeded in building the 2nd Temple on the ruins of the previous one. In the process they had to overcome many difficulties including violent opposition from the neighboring tribes.

Maccabbean Revolt rose against the Greek Empire, as its king Antiochus outlawed Jewish traditions and ordered a pagan altar to be set up in the Temple at Jerusalem. The revolt succeeded and the temple was dedicated. Hanukkah, celebrated during eight days from the twenty-fifth day of Kislew (December), chiefly as a festival of lights, was instituted by Judas Maccabeus, to be celebrated annually with mirth and joy as a memorial of the dedication of the altar.

Roman army led by Titus to suppress the Jewish Big Revolt did so brutally. The suffering in Jerusalem was terrible. According to Josephus, even before the siege was ended, 600,000 bodies had been thrown out of the gates. On the 17th of Tamuz the Romans entered Jerusalem. On the 9th of Av they destroyed the Temple. Both days were set to be fast days ever since. Many of the inhabitants were killed or carried off and sold as slaves in the Roman markets.

Roman anti-Jewish laws lead to the Bar-Kokhva Revolt. Although successful at first, the revolt was firmly suppressed after three years. As many as 580,000 Jews fell in battle, not including those who succumbed to hunger and pestilence. It was then when the Romans gave the name Palestine to the land of Israel so that the Jewish connection to the land would vanish. For the same reason Jews were not allowed into Jerusalem and Jewish traditions were outlawed.

Caliph Abd al-Malik completes the construction of the shrine Dome of the Rock on the Jewish Temple's ruins in Jerusalem.

The Chazars' King felt that God appeared to him in a dream and promised him might and glory. The King questioned the Mohammedans, the Christians and the Jews about their religions. Following his research he decided to adopt Judaism. Rabbi Yehuda Halevi uses this story as a platform to explain the Jewish Philosophy in his book the Kuzari.

The crusades were expeditions from western Europe to bring Jerusalem and the holy places back to the hands of Christians. The mobs accompanying the first three Crusades attacked the Jews in Europe and Israel, and put many of them to death. The Jews of Jerusalem, as in other places in Israel, were slaughtered as the first crusade conquered it in 1099.

Most countries in Central and Western Europe expelled their Jews between the 12th and the 15th centuries. England did so in 1290. The expulsions were generally accompanied by robbing their belongings and nationalizing their houses. Occasionally the Jews were allowed to come back and then robbed and expelled again after several years.

The Black-Death was a violent pestilence which ravaged Europe between 1348, and 1351, and is said to have carried off nearly half the population. A myth arose, especially in Germany, that the spread of the disease was due to a plot of the Jews to destroy Christians by poisoning the wells from which they obtained. All over Europe mobs against Jews arose and thousands of them were slain over these false accusations.

Casimir The Great, King of Poland grants rights to the Jews. Poland therefore attracts Jewish immigration from Germany and Russia and as a result becomes the most important Jewish center of Europe.

An edict of expulsion was issued against the Jews of Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella (March 31, 1492). It ordered all Jews and Jewesses of whatever age to leave the kingdom in 4 months, leaving their houses, gold, silver, and money. Approximately 200 thousand fled Spain, 50,000 converted, and dozens of thousands were killed or died from diseases on the journey.

Moreinu ha-Rav Loew, the Maharal, establishes his academy in Prague and thus contributes to Jewish education and evolvement.

Led by Chmielnicki the Ukrainians slain between 100,000 to 300,000 Jews in less than 2 years. Terrible massacres spread over the course of the next ten years to Poland, Russia and Lithuania killing dozens to hundreds of thousands Jews.

Hasidism movement arose among the Polish Jews and won over nearly half of the Jewish masses there. It was founded by the Ba'al Shem Tov. His teachings assign the first place in religion not to religious dogma and ritual, but to the sentiment and the emotion of faith. This change gave rise to an opposition movement called the Mitnagdim led by the Vilna Ga'on, that most valued man's Talmudic learning and traditional rituals and prayers.

Napoleon has published a proclamation in which he invites all the Jews of Asia and Africa to gather under his flag in order to re-establish the ancient Jerusalem.

Big changes in European society influenced its Jewish world. Emancipation, enlightenment, assimilation and the appearance of the Reform and the Orthodox movements are some of the main results.

Accusation of ritual murder brought against the Jews of Damascus in 1840. The affair shook the Jewish world.

Capt. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army was falsely accused of spying, as an indirect result of antisemitism. The novelist Emile Zola published under the title J'Accuse, an open letter to the president of the republic, an eloquent philippic against the enemies of truth and justice.

The First Zionist Congress was held in Basel with the initiative and leadership of Herzl. The Congress was a Zionist parliament with Jews represented from all over the world. It was initiated in order to discuss and make decisions regarding the Jewish nation and the ways to achieve Jewish sovereignty and national aspirations.

Wave of pogroms in Russia, including the most known Kishinev pogrom, began in 1881 and continued for over 40 years. Dozens of thousands were murdered. The pogroms had great impact on migrations (more than - 2 million Jews migrated mainly to America) and the development of Zionism.

The Nazi criminals and their collaborators murdered 6 million Jews systematically and cold blooded, as they intended to perish the existence of Israel. In memory of the Holocaust victims, the State of Israel set a national memorial day on the 27th of Nisan.

The State of Israel was established on May 14, 1948 with the declaration of independence made by the Jewish People's Council, led by David Ben Gurion.

Jacob and his sons were 70 people as they descended to Egypt, apart from their wives. We can assume that Jacob's house-hold members also joined. It is told that Abraham had 318 men. Therefore, we can assume that Jacob and his sons also had several hundred Household Members - men, women and children.

After the exodus, in the year 1313 BCE the Israelites counted more than 600 thousand men over the age of 20. Therefore, having a population of around 2.5 million.

Around the year 1000 BCE, just before the monarchy began, Israel's population is estimated to have been approximately 3.4 million.

Around the year 960 BCE, Israel's population is estimated to have been approximately 5 million. This comes from King David's census that counted a total 1.3 million adult males, indicating a total population of about 5 million people.

Around the year 720 BCE Israel's population is estimated to have been approximately 1.3 million. The big drop in population was caused by wars and assimilation that came as a result of the kingdom's split to Judah and Israel after King Solomon passed away.

Around the year 700 BCE Israel's population is estimated to have been approximately 0.8 million. The drop in population was caused by the Assyrian conquest and exile of Israel's 10 tribes.

Around the year 585 BCE, Israel's population is estimated to have been approximately 0.3 million, most of which lived outside the land of Israel, as a result of the Babylonian conquest and exile.

Around the year 515 BCE, the total Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 0.3 million. Approximately half lived in Israel after the Return to Zion was allowed by the Persian Empire.

Around the year 65 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 4.35 million. Approximately half living in the Land of Israel, and the other half outside of Israel, in its surrounding countries.

Around the year 70 CE, after the great revolt was brutally suppressed, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 2 million. The Romans killed many, and took many others as slaves. This gave birth to the European diaspora.

Around the year 135 CE, after the Bar-Kochva revolt was brutally suppressed, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 1.5 million. It was estimated that 580,000 Jews were killed during that war.

Around the year 1100 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 1.0 million. Crusaders killed Jews on their way to the Land of Israel and in it.

Around the year 1351 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 1.0 million. Thousands of Jews were murdered as christians in Europe blamed them for causing the black plague.

Around the year 1500 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 1.0 million. That was a few years after the expulsion from Spain, which deported about 100,000 Jews to the Ottoman Empire, Asia and Africa. About 50,000 Jews were converted. Presumably, some tens of thousands were killed.

Around the year 1650 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 1.0 million. As more than 100,000 Jews were slaughtered in Poland and Lithuania.

Around the year 1882 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 7.8 million. Fast natural growth in European population. Pogroms in eastern Europe lead to casualties and immigration waves to America.

In the year 1939 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 16.6 million. Fast natural growth in Europe and America.

In the year 1945 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 11.4 million. The Nazi criminals and their collaborators murdered 6 million Jews systematically and cold blooded, in an attempt to demenish the existence of Israel.

In the year 2010 CE, the Jewish population is estimated to have been approximately 13.5 million. Today the State of Israel is the largest Jewish center in the world, with approximately 6 million Jews. It had less than a tenth of that number of Jews only 64 years ago when it was established.

During the Bronze Era, prior to the conquest of Israel by the Israelites, the Land of Israel was occupied by a number of small nations called the Canaanites. The Canaanites lived most of this period under Egyptian hegemony. Edited from Wikipedia.

After wondering 40 years in the desert, following the Exodus from Egypt, the people of Israel occupied the land of Israel under the leadership of Joshua (appointed by Moses before his death). The occupation was gradual and the Israeli tribes frequently suffered from wars with neighboring nations. Prosperity began as the tribes united to form the monarchy. Prosperity and peace peaked during the reigning of King Solomon. This enabled him to build the First Temple in Jerusalem. With his death the kingdom split.

After the death of Solomon, all the Israelite tribes except for Judah and Benjamin refused to accept Rehoboam, the son and successor of Solomon, as their king. The rebellion against Rehoboam arose after he refused to lighten the burden of taxation that his father had imposed on his subjects. Rehoboam fled to Jerusalem and Jeroboam was proclaimed king over all Israel at Shechem. The northern kingdom continued to be called the Kingdom of Israel or Israel, while the southern kingdom was called the kingdom of Judah. The split of the kingdom weakened both sides and led to internal and external wars as well as assimilation.

Assyria conquered Israel but not Judah. The remaining population of the ten conquered tribes either fled to Judah or were exiled.

Babylon conquered the Assyrian Empire and Judah. Doing so they exiled the Jews and destroyed the first Temple.

The Persian Empire conquered Babylon and replaced it as the region's ruler and the world's greatest empire yet. Cyrus the Great, the Persian king, permitted the Jews that were exiled by Babylon to return to their land and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem.

Greece, under the leadership of Alexander the Great, conquered Persia and took its place as the region's empire. The relationships with the Jews were good at first but deteriorated after Alexander's death.

Antiochus Epiphanes, King of the Greek-Seleucid Empire, outlawed the Jewish religious practices and desecrated the holy sites. These actions led to a national revolt led by the Maccabees. The revolt succeeded and the temple was dedicated. Hanukkah, was instituted by Judas Maccabeus, to be celebrated annually with mirth and joy as a memorial of the dedication of the altar. The Maccabees succeeded in gaining full independence a few years later, and that is how the Hasmonean State was born.

The Roman Empire easily swallowed the Hasmonean State. This huge empire was one of the cruelest and most devastating for the Jewish people. It destructed the Second Temple, and later on firmly suppressed the Bar-Kochva revolt. In each war the Romans massacred hundreds of thousands of Jews, exiled and enslaved many others. It was then when the Romans gave the name Palestine to the land of Israel so that the Jewish connection to the land would vanish. For the same reason Jews were not allowed into Jerusalem and Jewish traditions were outlawed.

The Roman Empire was split into Western Rome and Eastern Rome, which was later named Byzantine.

The Arabs fought Byzantine for a couple of years before they eventually won and took its place in the land of Israel and Syria.

The first Crusade started its journey to Israel in 1096. Its goal was to gain Christian rule over Jerusalem. Three years later it succeeded. The mobs accompanying the Crusades attacked the Jews in Europe and Israel, and put many of them to death. The Jews of Jerusalem, as in other places in Israel, were slaughtered as the first crusade conquered it in 1099. This was the end of a stable large Jewish community in Israel until the modern era.

The Mamluks were non-Arab Muslims, who were first slaves and later took over Egypt. As Egypt's leaders they led a war and defeated the Mongolians and thus secured rule over Israel and Syria.

The Sultan Selim I led the Ottoman Empire to the east. In the year 1516 he defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and took over its dependencies including the land of Israel.

The Land of Israel was conquered during the First World War by Great Britain. A few years later, the League of Nations passed an instrument granting Britain a mandate over the area. The purpose of the Mandate, as defined by the League of Nations, was to prepare a national home for the Jewish people on that territory. The territory included the land that is occupied today by Israel, Jordan and the Palestinian Authority. The British did not follow the Mandate they were given. Less than twenty years later Europe's Jews (that did not have their own homeland) were killed by the Nazi criminals and their supporters.

The State of Israel was established on May 14, 1948 with the declaration of independence made by the Jewish People's Council, led by David Ben Gurion. It is today the largest Jewish center in the world, with approximately 6 million Jews. It had less than a tenth of that number of Jews only 64 years ago when it was established.

The period between Abraham and Moses.

The period from the entrance of the Israelite tribes to the Land of Israel after the Exodus until the coronation of King Saul.

The period from the coronation of King Saul to Ezra the Scribe.

The period from Ezra the Scribe to the first Zugot.

The Zugot (couples in Hebrew) were the couples that stood at the head of the Sanhedrin. One as president and the other as father of the court. Jose ben Joezer, and Jose ben Johanan were the first couple (during the time of the Maccabees). Hillel and Shammai were the last and probably most known couple.

The Tannaim were the Rabbinic sages that came after Hillel and Shammai. Their main work and legacy was the Mishna, that was compiled by the last Ta'na Rabbi Judah HaNasi. His death signs the end of the Tannaim period.

The term Amora was applied to the teachers that flourished during a period of about three hundred years, from the time of the death of the patriarch R. Judah I. (about 210) to the completion of the Babylonian Talmud (about 500). The activity of the teachers during this period was devoted principally to expounding the Mishnah the compilation of the patriarch R. Judah which became the authoritative code of the oral law. This activity was developed as well in the academies of Tiberias, Sepphoris, Csarea, and others in Palestine, as in those of Nehardea, Sura, and later of Pumbedita, and in some other seats of learning in Babylonia. In these academies the main object of the lectures and discussions was to interpret the often very brief and concise expression of the Mishnah, to investigate its reasons and sources, to reconcile seeming contradictions, to compare its canons with those of the Baraitot, and to apply its decisions to, and establish principles for, new cases, both real and fictitious, not already provided for in the Mishnah. The Amoraim's work finally became embodied in the Gemara (the Talmud). Credit note: the passage was taken from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia.

The principals and scholars of the Babylonian academies in the period immediately following that of the Amoraim. According to an old statement found in a gloss on a curious passage in the Talmud, Rabina, the principal of the Academy of Sura, was regarded as the end of the hora'ah,i.e., as the last Amora. The activity displayed by the Saboraim is described by Sherira, in the following terms: Afterward [i.e., after Rabina] there was probably no hora'ah [i.e., no independent decision], but there were scholars called Saboraim, who, rendered decisions similar to the hora'ah [i.e. the Talmud as left by the Amoraim], and who gave clear explanations of everything that had been left unsettled. Credit note: the passage was taken from the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia.

The title of Gaon was given to the heads of the academies of Sura, Pumbedita and Israel. For while the Amoraim, through their interpretation of the Mishnah, gave rise to the Talmud, and while the Saboraim definitively edited it, the Geonim's task was to interpret it; for them it became the subject of study and instruction, and they gave religio-legal decisions in agreement with its teachings. The last gaon was Hai Gaon, who died in 1038.

Rishonim are the Rabbinical authorities and scholars that came after the last Gaon (Hai Gaon) and before the period of the Spanish Inquisition and the compilation of the Shulchan Aruch. Amongst the most known Rishonim are Rashi, the Rambam and Ramban.

Achronim are the Rabbinical scholars from the time of the Spanish Inquisition to our days. During this period, the Shulchan Aruch was written, which still serves today as the main source for learning Halachic Laws.

The Neolithic Revolution transformed the small and mobile groups of hunter-gatherers that had hitherto dominated human historyinto sedentarysocietiesbased in built-upvillagesandtowns, which radically modified theirnatural environment These developments provided the basis for highpopulation densitysettlements, specialized and complexlabor diversification,trading economies, the development of non-portableart,architecture, and culture, centralized administrations and political structures, hierarchicalideologies, and depersonalized systems of knowledge (e.g.,property regimesandwriting). The first full-blown manifestation of the entireNeolithiccomplex is seen in theMiddle EasternSumeriancities (ca.3,500 BC), whose emergence also inaugurates the end of the prehistoric Neolithic period and the beginning of human society as we know it. Source: edited from Wikipedia (link below).

The coalescing of Egyptian civilization around 3100 BC under the firstpharaoh has a great significance as it was the first bureaucracy to control, tax and unite under a single ruler hundreds of thousands of individuals. This proves the existence of a sophisticated and professional bureaucracy that had the ability to take notes and manage huge and organized archives and data-bases.

True writing systems developed fromneolithicwriting in theEarly Bronze Age. TheSumerianarchaic writing and theEgyptian hieroglyphsare generally considered the earliest true writing systems, both emerging out of their ancestral proto-literate symbol systems from 34003200 BC with earliest coherent texts from about2600 BC. (Source: Wikipedia). Its significance comes from the ability to write down anything that can be expressed, which was impossible before that, since the written symbols was limited to numerous specific words.

TheCode of Hammurabiis a well-preservedBabylonianlaw code, dating back to about 1772 BC. It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king,Hammurabi, enacted the code, and partial copies exist on a human-sized stonesteleand various clay tablets. The Code consists of 282 laws, with scaled punishments, adjusting an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth (lex talionis)[1]as graded depending on social status, of slave versus free man. (Source: Wikipedia)

InGreek mythology, theTrojan Warwas waged against the city ofTroyby theGreeks afterParisof Troy tookHelenfrom her husbandking ofSparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has been narrated through many works ofGreek literature. The end of the war came with one final plan. Odysseus devised a giant hollow wooden horse, an animal that was sacred to the Trojans. The hollow horse was filled with soldiers. When the Trojans discovered that the Greeks were gone, believing the war was over, they joyfully dragged the horse inside the city. The soldiers from inside the horse emerged and killed the Trojan guards and opened the gates. The Greeks entered the city and killed the sleeping population. (Source of this passage: Wikipedia)

The first known coin was invented in the region of Turkey. Its value was set by the weight and value of the metals that composed it. It had the same value melted or in a different form since its value was the value of its materials. Today money has no material value and most of it is completely virtual on computers. Its value comes only from peoples belief in it.

Gautama Buddhawas aspiritualteacher from theIndian subcontinent,on whose teachingsBuddhismwas founded. His work was focused on decreasing human suffering through self help.

Chinese Monarchy, under the Qin dynasty, was the largest in population ever in history up-until then. The form of monarchy survived more than two-thousand years until the establishment of the Chinese Republic in 1912.

Christians hold Jesus to be the awaited Messiah of the Old Testament. Most Christians believe that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of a virgin, performed miracles, founded the Church, died sacrificially by crucifixion to achieve atonement, rose from the dead, and ascended into heaven, from which he will return. The majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, and the Second Person of the Holy Trinity. Today, Christianity is the largest religion in the world. (Source of this passage: Wikipedia)

Before the end of the 1st century, the Roman authorities recognized Christianity as a separate religion from Judaism. The distinction was given official status by the emperor Nerva around the year 98 by granting Christians exemption from paying the humiliating tax imposed by Rome only upon Jews. At first, Christians were persecuted for their belief and refusal to worship the Roman gods or to pay homage to the emperor as divine. Only in 313, Emperor Constantine granted Christians and others the right of open and free observance of their worship. By the end of that century Emperor Theodosius I established the Christianity as the official state religion, reserving for its followers the title of Catholic Christians and declaring that those who did not follow were to be called heretics. Pagan worship became formally forbidden. (Source: Wikipedia)

Muhammad was a religious, political, and military leader from Mecca, who unified Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. He is believed by Muslims to be a messenger and prophet of God and, by most Muslims, the last and most important prophet sent by God for mankind. Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity.

Arabic numerals are the ten digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). They are descended from the Indian numeral system developed by Indian mathematicians. They were transmitted to Europe in the Middle Ages. The use of Arabic numerals spread around the world through European trade, books and colonialism. The system was revolutionary by including a zero and positional notation. It is considered an important milestone in the development of mathematics. Today they are the most common symbolic representation of numbers in the world. (Source of the passage: Wikipedia)

Printing was invented in China around the year 200 using wood blocks. The first printed book found in the world was printed in China around the year 868. The technology was brought to Europe but the fast global spread of the printing press began with the invention of movable type printing press by Gutenberg in Germany in the 15th century. This revolutionary invention had great effect on humanity as it led to the scientific and industrial revolutions.

TheHundred Years' Warwas a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France and their various allies for control of the French throne. The war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism. The first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire were introduced for the war, thus changing the role of the peasantry. In France, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines and bandit free companies of mercenaries reduced the population by about one-half. (Source: Wikipedia)

The Black Plague reduce Europe's population by about one-third. Christians blamed the Jews for causing the plague (a common rumor was that the Jews poisoned water sources) and thus persecuted them. This led the Jews to flee Western Europe towards the East.

Europe discovered America and opened new frontiers and opportunities. From that point on European imperialism was to search, find, conquer and exploit most of the world.

The Scientific and Industrial Revolutions occurred in Europe and led to its meteoric development. These revolutions eventually enabled this small and insignificant (at that moment) continent to spread out and eventually take over the whole world.

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EARLY MODERN JEWISH HISTORY: Overview

Posted By on October 24, 2015

The early modern period (approximately 1450s-1750s) was a period of both transformation and continuity, characterized by the religious upheavals wrought by the Reformation, the invention and spread of printing, the growing power of the centralized state, new ideologies and economic structures, and rapid population growth. A convergence of many factors brought about the extension of European global influence, and with it the migration of large numbers of Europeans to distant lands.

It was a period of dramatic change in Jewish history as well. In fact, Jews were never isolated from developments in their non-Jewish environment, but participated in and responded to those developments in ways that reflected their distinct cultural patterns. Particularly important for them, in the early modern period, were the beginning of Hebrew printing, the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, and the emergence of Kabbalah as one of the dominant factors in their religious culture. Eastward migrations of Jews from Spain and the German states gave rise to new cultural centers in the Ottoman Empire and Poland-Lithuania. By the seventeenth century, Jews and conversos (descendants of baptized Jews from the Iberian Peninsula) were renewing Jewish settlement in the Atlantic states where Jewish settlement had long been prohibited. Encouraged by mercantilist rulers, Jews who possessed capital and international trade connections also began resettling in central Europe, and as part of the wider saga of European expansion, Jews and conversos also made their way to the Americas.

In Europe, the Reformation had a transformative impact on Jewish life in often unexpected ways. Although many of the early Protestant leaders harbored harshly negative attitudes to Jews, and although reaction to the Reformation produced severe anti-Jewish measures in Catholic states, in the long run the breakup of a monolithic western Christendom led to theological experimentation across old boundaries and notions of religious toleration that also boded well for Jewish existence. At the same time, the religious ferment of the age encouraged internal criticism of rabbinic authority and even theological skepticism, particularly among Portuguese Jews, in ways that foreshadowed the erosion of distinctive core traditions.

For the most part, however, traditional rabbinic Judaism remained firmly rooted in Jewish society, and was perhaps even defined more rigidly with the advent of printing. Among the important works that were disseminated with new speed after the introduction of the printing press were the Shulkhan arukh, a code of Jewish law that quickly became normative throughout the Jewish world, and traditional commentaries on the Bible and Talmud. Yet in the mid-sixteenth century, kabbalistic teachings emanating from Safed spread quickly through the Balkans, Italy, and elsewhere, introducing an essentially new Jewish cosmology. While it was often fused eclectically with older traditions, in many communities kabbalah came to dominate the ethos of Jewish life. It is only in light of widely popularized kabbalistic beliefs that the explosion of messianic enthusiasm around Sabbatai Zevi in 1666 can be understood, as well as the emergence of Hasidism a century later.

On the eve of the modern period, world Jewry was more diverse culturally and more scattered geographically than it had ever been. Still, the language of Scripture and prayer, the basic rituals of Jewish life, and the high degree of communal autonomy that was characteristic throughout the diaspora continued to define the boundaries between Jew and Gentile rather clearly. And yet the ideas and trends that would eventually lead to the radical breakdown of those boundaries were gaining increasing expression on both sides of the divide.

The expulsion decree: published in Edward Peters, Jewish History and Gentile Memory, Jewish History 9 (1995), pp. 23-28 and http://www.sephardicstudies.org/decree.html

Judah Abravanel Poem to His Son (1503), translated by Raymond Scheindlin published in Judah Abravanel and His Sons in Judaism 41 (Spring 1992).

Charter of Boleslaw the Pious to the Jews of Poland (1264) in Robert Chazan Church, State and the Jew in the Middle Ages.

Chris Friedrichs, Moving through Urban Space in Early Modern Europe, http://www.earlymodern.org/workshops/2005/videos.php

R. Po-Chia Hsia, Jewish History and World History in the Early Modern Age. http://www.earlymodern.org/workshops/2004/videos.php

Salo Baron Ghetto and Emancipation, Menorah Journal 14 (1928): 515-526

Ravid, Benjamin. From Geographical Realia to Historical Symbol: The Odyssey of the Word Ghetto. In Essential Papers on Jewish Culture in Renaissance and Baroque Italy, edited by David B. Ruderman. New York: New York University Press, 1992

Chris Friedrichs, Moving through Urban Space in Early Modern Europe.

R. Po-Chia Hsia, Jewish History and World History in the Early Modern Age.

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EARLY MODERN JEWISH HISTORY: Overview

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